Learning Disabilities
and Challenging Behaviors
Using the Building Blocks
Model to Guide Intervention
and Classroom Management
Third Edition
by
Nancy Mather, Ph.D.
University of Arizona
Tucson
Sam Goldstein, Ph.D.
Neurology, Learning and Behavior Center
and University of Utah School of Medicine
Salt Lake City
and
Katie Eklund, Ph.D.
University of Arizona
Tucson
with invited contributors
Baltimore • London • Sydney
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v
Contents
About the Downloadable Materials ................................................................................................vii
About the Authors .................................................................................................................................... ix
About the Contributors ......................................................................................................................... xi
Preface ........................................................................................................................................................ xiii
Acknowledgments ...............................................................................................................................xvii
A Note to Teachers .................................................................................................................................xix
I Introduction
1 The Building Blocks of Learning: A Framework for
Understanding Classroom Learning and Behavior ......................................................... 3
2 Theoretical Foundations ...........................................................................................................31
3 The Learning Environment ...................................................................................................... 55
II Foundational Blocks
4 Self- Regulation: Understanding and Managing Students with
Hyperactivity and Poor Attention, Planning, and Impulse Control ......................81
5 Understanding and Managing Challenging Behaviors ............................................. 123
6 Emotions: Understanding and Managing Anxiety, Depression,
Trauma, and Stress ....................................................................................................................155
7 Strategies to Promote Resilience ........................................................................................ 181
III Processing Blocks
...................................... 207
9 Instruction for the Processing Blocks: Decoding and Encoding,
Reading Fluency, Calculating, and Handwriting ......................................................... 273
IV Conceptual Blocks
10 The Conceptual Blocks: Verbal, Nonverbal, and
Executive Functions ................................................................................................................. 351
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vi
Contents
11 Instruction in Reading Comprehension, Written Expression,
and Math Problem Solving .....................................................................................................403
V Conclusion
12 The Classroom Environment as a Microcosm of the World ...................................463
References ............................................................................................................................................... 475
Additional Resources ......................................................................................................................... 513
Web Sites and Professional Organizations ...............................................................................523
Index ........................................................................................................................................................... 527
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ix
About the Authors
Nancy Mather, Ph.D., University of Arizona, College of
Education, Department of Disability and Psychoeduca-
tional Studies, Education Building 409, Tucson, Arizona
85721
Dr. Mather is a professor at the University of Arizona
in the Department of Disability and Psychoeducational
Studies. She specializes in the areas of reading, writing,
and learning disabilities. She has conducted numerous
workshops and presentations both nationally and inter-
nationally on assessment, instruction, and issues that
affect service delivery for individuals with learning dis-
abilities. She has written many books and articles on top-
and Dr. Kevin S. McGrew, of the Woodcock- Johnson IV Tests of Cognitive Abilities
(WJ IV; Riverside, 2014). Dr. Mather has also coauthored two books on interpreta-
tion and application of the WJ IV:
with Dr. Lynne E Jaffe (Wiley, in press) and
with Barbara J. Wendling (Wiley, in press). In addition,
she has coauthored with Barbara J.
Wendling (Wiley, 2012).
Sam Goldstein, Ph.D., Neurology, Learning and Behav-
ior Center, 230 South 500 East, Suite 100, Salt Lake City,
Utah 84102
member of the faculty at the University of Utah School
of Medicine. He is Clinical Director of the Neurology,
Learning and Behavior Center in Salt Lake City, Utah,
and on staff at the University Neuropsychiatric Insti-
tute. Dr. Goldstein is an adjunct assistant professor in
the Department of Psychiatry at the University of Utah
School of Medicine. He is Editor- in- Chief of the
and sits on the editorial boards of six journals, including the
His publications include 47 professional and trade
texts on subjects including genetics and developmental disorders, intelligence,
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x
About the Authors
executive functioning, autism, depression, classroom consultation, learning dis-
ability, and attention. He has coauthored six psychological and neuropsychological
tests, including the Cognitive Assessment System, Second Edition (PRO- ED, 2014),
the Autism Spectrum Rating Scales (Multi- Health Systems, 2009), and the Compre-
hensive Executive Functioning Inventory (Multi- Health Systems, 2012). Dr. Gold-
stein speaks internationally on a wide range of child development and forensic
topics.
Katie Eklund, Ph.D., University of Arizona, College of
Education, School Psychology Program, 1430 East Sec-
ond Street, Tucson, Arizona 85721
Dr. Eklund is an assistant professor in the School Psy-
chology Program at the University of Arizona. She
received her doctorate in counseling, clinical, and school
psychology from the University of California, Santa Bar-
bara. Dr. Eklund has worked in public education for
14 years as a school administrator, school psychologist,
and school social worker and is a Nationally Certi-
Dr. Eklund has authored a number of publications on
for behavioral and emotional concerns, school climate, and positive psychology. Her
teaching interests include school- based academic and behavioral interventions, cri-
sis response and intervention, and school- based consultation and problem- solving
skills.
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7
The Building Blocks of Learning
ENVIRONMENT
FOUNDATIONAL
Self-
Regulation
B
ehavior Emotions Resilience
PROCESSING
EFFICIENCY/AUTOMATICITY
Phonological Orthographic Memory Motor
CONCEPTUAL
Executive
Functions
Verbal Nonverbal
(SLD) and classroom behavior problems. Although various learning and behavior
the main focus of this text is on identifying the developmental, learning, and behav-
ior skills of children and then determining the practical strategies and techniques
that will be most effective in helping them succeed in school. As illustrated by the
brief descriptions of these students, each child has an individual style of learn-
ing and a unique set of circumstances. Increased awareness and understanding of
school- related outcomes.
BUILDING BLOCKS OF LEARNING
-
tors contributing to the learning or behavior problem, because when a child acts
out, the reason may not be readily apparent. Similarly, when a child fails or refuses
to complete work, it is rarely because of poor motivation. Lowered motivation in
students is often a secondary symptom resulting from chronic failure and school
-
cial and general education teachers, and parents, we have developed and revised a
simple framework for explaining why children experience learning and behavior
problems in the classroom. This framework is called the Building Blocks of Learning
this third edition contains an updated model and a revised questionnaire.
Our efforts to develop a working model of classroom problems and the reasons
they occur, combined with our professional experiences, led us to conclude that the
classroom behavior and learning problems of children could be represented using
-
dational skills, the middle of the triangle representing processing or perceptual
skills, and the top of the triangle representing conceptual or thinking skills. The
remainder of this chapter introduces the Building Blocks of Learning model. Chap-
ter 2 reviews the theoretical foundations for the model.
Although the model has not yet undergone large- scale evaluation, we believe
it is consistent with both past and present research and with the observations and
reports from parents, teachers, and specialists throughout the years. The model
offers a bridge between research and educational practice. Its intent is to help edu-
cators increase their understanding of the various reasons why children struggle
in school and, more important, the ways in which professionals can help these
students.
This model, presented in Figure 1.2, contains 12 Building Blocks stacked into
the shape of a pyramid. At the base of the pyramid is the learning environment— an
external variable that includes a child’s home and classroom environments. The 12
blocks of the pyramid are divided into three distinct groups. At the base are the four
Foundational blocks: and The middle
level contains a set of four Processing blocks:
and Underlying these four blocks is a support block:
Automatic and easy processing facilitates all learning. The top level contains three
Conceptual blocks: for thinking with language; for thinking with
images and spatial reasoning; and the top block, for thinking
with strategies. The abilities in the Processing and Conceptual blocks affect differ-
ent aspects of academic performance and learning.
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8
Introduction
Many of the most common classroom learning and behavior problems can be
represented clearly, described, and subsequently understood through the use of
this model. We acknowledge that not all important school abilities are accounted for
in this model; we also recognize that these blocks are not discrete units but rather
one block, and some degree of overlap exists among the abilities in different blocks.
For example, aspects of morphology, the meaning units of language, are relevant to
the Phonological and Orthographic blocks, such as the skills needed to decode mul-
aspects of morphology are more related to the Verbal block, such as how knowledge
block really affects all types of learning and is involved in the Processing blocks,
as well as extending into all the Conceptual blocks. Different demands are placed
on memory depending on the nature of the task. Working memory is involved in
the earlier perceptual processes but also in the network of executive functions
-
plication facts or following the series of steps in a long division problem (Process-
ing blocks) but also involved in retelling a story or planning a strategy to solve
a problem (Conceptual blocks). As another example, some overlap exists among
ENVIRONMENT
FOUNDATIONAL
Self-
Regulation
Beha
vior Emotions Resilience
PROCESSING
EFFICIENCY/AUTOMATICITY
Phonological Orthographic Memory Motor
C
ONCEPTUAL
Executive
Functions
Verbal Nonverbal
Figure 1.2. The Building Blocks of Learning model.
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9
The Building Blocks of Learning
ENVIRONMENT
FOUNDATIONAL
Self-
Regulation
B
ehavior Emotions Resilience
PROCESSING
EFFICIENCY/AUTOMATICITY
Phonological Orthographic Memory Motor
CONCEPTUAL
Executive
Functions
Verbal Nonverbal
the attentional demands within the Foundational block of Self- Regulation and the
attentional control that is required in the Conceptual block of Executive Functions.
As we explain the model, we will attempt to clarify these overlaps and distinctions.
and school performance can help educators understand a student’s challenges and
subsequently design appropriate behavioral and academic interventions.
The Learning Environment
Symbolically, the base of the pyramid is the learning environment. This includes
the supports provided for the student in the home and school as well as any spe-
cial services such as speech- language or occupational therapy that the student
receives. Clearly, children’s learning and behavior problems can be exacerbated by
factors within the home and school settings. For example, lack of parental support
and his emotional availability to engage in academic tasks. Although Beto had a
stable home environment, neither one of his parents spoke English. Thus, when he
entered an English- only classroom, he was at a distinct disadvantage. Despite the
our focus in this book is on the learning environment at school. Classroom teach-
ers have the primary responsibility for creating a nurturing class environment in
which students feel respected, valued, and supported academically, socially, and
emotionally.
Foundational Blocks
The Foundational blocks provide the support system for all learning. Just as the
foundation of a house must be strong enough to support the structure, these four
in the Foundational blocks follows.
Self- Regulation
The Building Block of Self- Regulation includes a child’s ability to pay attention,
regulate behavior, and control impulses— all skills that are critical to learning.
-
ties stemmed from poor self- regulation and that his problems with impulse control
prevented him from focusing on the relevant requirements of classroom learning
tasks. Jeremy had trouble maintaining persistent effort and was easily distracted
-
pleting his assignments and rarely turned in work. He would often disturb other
children.
Behavior
The Building Block of Behavior includes a student’s covert and overt actions, includ-
caused negative reactions from his peers. He would often shove another student or,
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10
Introduction
to implement several interventions, including moving Samuel’s desk away from
other students or sending him to time- out, but his disruptive behaviors continued.
Emotions
The Building Block of Emotions includes a child’s general temperament as well as his
or her moods. Problems in this block are sometimes called —
conditions such as depression, anxiety, and poor motivation. These disorders can
attitude and performance. Ben had always struggled with reading and spelling, for
tasks requiring reading and writing.
Resilience
In our model, the Building Block of Resilience focuses on how students perceive
themselves and to what factors they attribute their successes and failures. These
are learned attitudes, developed in part through feedback from parents, teachers,
and peers. Resilience is a quality that reduces risk and vulnerability while simulta-
neously enhancing functioning and development.
journal (see Figure 1.3). Clearly, her struggles with spelling and writing were affect-
Maria was beginning to believe that she was not good at anything at all.
To succeed in school, a child requires a supportive classroom environment, the
ability to sustain attention, self- discipline, healthy emotions, and a positive view
of self and school. Strengths in the Foundational blocks help a student compensate
Weaknesses in the Foundational blocks affect school performance, and adverse fac-
tors such as anxiety or depression reduce a student’s mental availability for learn-
ing. Strong Foundational blocks do not, however, guarantee school success. Some
children have support at home and school, pay attention, and are happy and well
the Processing or Conceptual blocks.
Processing Blocks
The second level of the Building Blocks model involves the processing of informa-
tion through the senses. The abilities in these blocks help children gain access to,
produce, recall, and retrieve information about the symbolic aspects of language.
-
opmental disorders (Hinshaw, 1992).
In general, the abilities in the Processing blocks are conceptualized as secre-
-
cation), encoding (i.e., spelling), and motor coding (i.e., handwriting). Isaacson
(1989) aptly distinguished between the roles of the secretary and the author in the
writing process. The secretary manages the mechanical concerns of writing, such
as spelling, punctuation, and handwriting (i.e., skills affected by strengths and
weaknesses in the Processing blocks), whereas the author formulates, organizes,
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11
The Building Blocks of Learning
ENVIRONMENT
FOUNDATIONAL
Self-
Regulation
B
ehavior Emotions Resilience
PROCESSING
EFFICIENCY/AUTOMATICITY
Phonological Orthographic Memory Motor
CONCEPTUAL
Executive
Functions
Verbal Nonverbal
and expresses ideas (i.e., skills affected by strengths and weaknesses in the Con-
ceptual blocks).
Some children have trouble with phonological processing tasks (e.g., rhym-
ing words, identifying the discrete sounds in words). Other children have trouble
with the orthographic or more visual aspects of learning to read and spell, such as
remembering which way to write the letter b or how to spell the irregular element
in a word. Certain children have trouble with aspects of memory, such as learning
to say the months of the year in order or memorizing multiplication facts. Still oth-
ers do poorly on the motor aspects of learning and, like Andy, have trouble cutting
with scissors or learning to form letters. Eventually, these abilities become increas-
ingly more automatic (with little thinking involved) as performance becomes more
diagnosed as having SLD. A brief description of the skills represented in these blocks
follows.
Phonological
This block encompasses phonological processing, an oral language ability that helps
individuals to understand the sound structure of speech. Phonological awareness
allows the individual to manipulate language sounds. As students learn an alpha-
that speech can be divided or sequenced into a series of discrete sounds, words, syl-
lables, and phonemes, or the smallest units of sound. In most children, this aware-
ness develops gradually during the preschool and early elementary years. Maria’s
affecting her self-perception. Because of these difficulties, Maria was beginning to
believe that she was not good at anything at all.
To succeed in school, a child requires a supportive classroom environment,
the ability to pay attention, healthy emotions, self-discipline, and a positive view
of self and school. Strengths in the foundational blocks help a student compensate
for other difficulties and learn to persevere even when faced with difficult tasks.
Weaknesses in the foundational blocks affect school performance, and adverse
factors such as anxiety or depression reduce a child’s availability for learning.
Strong foundational blocks do not, however, guarantee school success. Some
children have support at home and school, pay attention, and are happy and well
adjusted but struggle because of specific cognitive and linguistic weaknesses in
the symbolic or conceptual blocks.
Symbolic Blocks
The second level of the Building Blocks model involves the processing of
information through the senses. The abilities in these blocks help children gain
access to, produce, recall, and retrieve information about the symbolic aspects of
language. Many terms have been applied to the deficient school achievement of
this group, including LD, underachievement, learning difficulty, dyslexia, and
specific developmental disorders (Hinshaw, 1992).
In general, the abilities of the symbolic blocks are conceptualized as secretarial
in nature because difficulties primarily affect basic skill development or the
mastery of the coding systems of language: decoding (i.e., word identification),
encoding (i.e., spelling), and motor coding (i.e., handwriting). Isaacson (1989) aptly
distinguished between the roles of the secretary and the author in the writing
process. The secretary manages the mechanical concerns of writing, such as
spelling, punctuation, and handwriting (i.e., skills affected by strengths and
9
FOUNDATIONAL
SYMBOLIC
CONCEPTUAL
Strategies
Attention
& Self-
Regulation
Emotions
Behavior
Self-
Esteem
Motor
Images
Language
Orthography
Phonology
Figure 1.3. Maria’s comments in her journal.
01Mather (F)-01 2/18/08 5:14 PM Page 9
Figure 1.3. Maria’s comments from her journal.
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12
Introduction
She had trouble discriminating similar speech sounds and often would omit sounds
when spelling a word or confuse certain sounds, such as writing for the /v/ sound.
Orthographic
The next block is orthographic processing. In a general sense, refers
to the writing system of a language, including the punctuation marks, capitaliza-
tion rules, and spelling patterns. In a narrower sense, orthography refers to the
perception and recall of letter strings and word forms. This ability, referred to as
orthographic awareness, allows the individual to form a mental representation of
the appearance of a letter or word. In addition, orthographic sensitivity helps one
become aware of the common spelling patterns and word parts as well as the rules
about legal letter strings or combinations that exist in a language. For example,
can be placed at the end of
a word to make the /k/ sound but not at the beginning of a word.
Memory
Several different types of memory can affect school learning. In reality, aspects
of memory permeate all learning. Verbal short- term memory refers to the ability
to repeat in a serial order information that has just been heard. This type of skill
is needed to follow directions in a classroom or take notes during a lecture. Dif-
as learning the letters and their names or memorizing multiplication facts. This
type of memory is often referred to as paired- associate learning or associative
memory.
Some memory abilities are more complex and include aspects of two or more
blocks, such as working memory. Working memory refers to the ability to appre-
be to ask someone to listen to a series of digits and then ask him or her to say the
digits back in a reversed order. This type of ability requires verbal short- term mem-
ory as well as the ability to visualize and rearrange the digits (nonverbal) and the
ability to use strategies (executive functions). In some cases, a student’s academic
cases, poor performance on tasks involving memory is more related to weaknesses
in self- regulation or verbal ability.
Motor
used in writing or drawing. Although it also includes gross motor skills, or skills
more related to school performance. Fine motor skills can be broken into two types:
1) symbol production (i.e., writing letters and numbers) and 2) artistic expression
(i.e., drawing a picture). Some children can sketch or draw wonderful illustrations
motor patterns needed for writing is sometimes referred to as dysgraphia. Andy
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13
The Building Blocks of Learning
ENVIRONMENT
FOUNDATIONAL
Self-
Regulation
B
ehavior Emotions Resilience
PROCESSING
EFFICIENCY/AUTOMATICITY
Phonological Orthographic Memory Motor
CONCEPTUAL
Executive
Functions
Verbal Nonverbal
Eciency/Automaticity
retrieval, or the speed of recognition and production of letters, numbers, and words.
This ability is needed to recall quickly basic sight vocabulary for both reading and
spelling and to solve a page of math facts quickly. A child with initial weaknesses
in this block is likely to have a slow reading rate and poor spelling in later years.
In fact, Ben’s major problems with reading and spelling were due to both his poor
orthographic awareness and his slow speed of word perception. Often a student
with a weakness in this block will have low scores on measures of processing speed
or rapid automatized naming (RAN).
In general, as skills become increasingly automatic, students are more able to
-
ing notes, and memorizing math facts. Once a child has learned a task, which may
require repeated practice, these skills become increasingly automatic, or
and are performed with little thought and effort. For example, when a child
has learned to read a word, the word is recognized instantly when it is encountered,
and, as a child learns to write letters, the speed and ease of writing these symbols
increase. The best way to become an expert is through practice— the more practice
the better (Rosenshine, 2012).
Skills in the Processing blocks help children perform various tasks, but these
-
ing to read, spell, write, and solve math computations. These children perform
automatic processing tasks with ease; however, when the curriculum begins to
accelerate and the children must read to learn, they may struggle because of weak-
nesses in language or reasoning skills. They may be capable of mastering basic
mathematical processes but struggle with more complex mathematics because of
Conceptual Blocks
The top of the pyramid includes the Conceptual abilities: Verbal, Nonverbal, and
Executive Functions. The abilities in the Conceptual blocks help students to under-
stand meanings, comprehend relationships, visualize complex designs, apply pre-
viously acquired knowledge, and evaluate their performance as they engage in
academic tasks.
Verbal
The Verbal block includes tasks that involve thinking with language, such as under-
standing what is heard, comprehending written text, expressing ideas through
speaking and writing, learning and using new vocabulary, and solving mathemati-
cal story problems. Students with strengths in language tend to speak easily and
possess an expansive vocabulary. Students with weaknesses in language often have
trouble with tasks involving both comprehension and production of text. Katy had
weaknesses in language, and, consequently, her answers often missed the mark.
One day, Ms. McGrew showed Katy a picture of four trees and then asked her, “Half
of these trees would be how many?” As she drew a horizontal line across the trees,
Katy asked, “You mean if you cut them this way?”
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14
Introduction
Nonverbal
The Nonverbal block includes tasks that involve thinking with images, such as the
abilities involved in reproducing complex visual patterns and designs as well as
-
culty with tasks of a nonverbal nature than with those involving language. These
concepts. They also may have trouble with developing social competence and rec-
ognizing, evaluating, and interpreting gestures and facial expressions. Stephanie
had a lot of trouble interpreting facial expressions and could not readily assess how
others were feeling. This block represents some problems associated with what is
often referred to as nonverbal learning disabilities (NVLDs).
Executive Functions
The top block on the model is Executive Functions. Executive functions encompass
the abilities to monitor performance and act strategically to solve problems and
complete tasks. These skills and abilities are used to direct all cognitive activities
own learning. This block is placed at the top of the model because of its importance
to all learning and behavior. Strengths in this block help students to be purposeful
and engage in goal- directed behavior. Ultimately, if students can be strategic, they
are better able to maximize their performance while compensating or adjusting for
weaknesses. This block includes thinking about thinking, or what is referred to as
metacognition.
How the Blocks Work Together
In thinking about the learning and behavior of students, one can understand the
Katy had weaknesses in the Conceptual blocks, and she struggled to comprehend
tasks that involved using language and reasoning. Jeremy struggled with weak-
nesses in the Foundational block of Self- Regulation. Although Ben could produce
intricate sketches of machines and rebuild a motorcycle engine, he had trouble
spelling even common words. Ben’s weakness in orthography affected his ability
to store and retrieve a mental image of the appearance of words. His marked dif-
tasks. Mark came from a disadvantaged environment in which little support was
provided for learning in the home. Marta had weaknesses in English but not in her
native language.
When the blocks are stacked together as a model, it is easy to understand how
a student’s unique learning and behavior characteristics, as well as the child’s sup-
port system and environment, can affect school success. When considering the
and how these abilities can be used to enhance performance; the second is to iden-
tify weaknesses so that appropriate accommodations and instructional plans can
be developed and implemented.
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