Bowling Green State University Bowling Green State University
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2019
Perceived Ice Quality in NHL Arenas and the Effect on Player Perceived Ice Quality in NHL Arenas and the Effect on Player
Offensive Performance Offensive Performance
Joe Martin
Bowling Green State University
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Running Head: PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE
PERFORMANCE
Joe Martin
Master’s Project
Submitted to the School of Human Movement, Sport, and Leisure Studies
Bowling Green State University
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF EDUCATION
In
Sport Administration
11/15/19
Project Advisor
Dr. Sungho Cho
Second Reader
Dr. Amanda Paule-Koba
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 1
Abstract
The playing surface in hockey is unlike any other in sports and because it is so integral to the
game, players and coaches believe that ice quality can impact their offensive performance. The
purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of ice quality of NHL arenas on player
performance by comparing statistics from games played at the best and worst rated arenas and to
their season average. One forward and one defenseman from each of the twenty-one teams who
do not play their home games in either the top five or bottom five ranked arenas were selected
for this study. These players were among the highest scoring players on their teams and played
multiple games at the arenas being studied. Each player’s average total points per game as well
as Corsi for percentage per game were calculated for the season as well as at the top and bottom
arenas. Those means were compared in paired-samples t-tests. There was no significant
difference in points per game at the top (µ = .7069) and bottom (µ = .6759) rated rinks (n = 42, p
= .771). Both means were lower than the entire season average (µ = .8183) for all forty-two
players studied and the average at the bottom five rated rinks was significantly lower than the
season average (n = 42, p = .007). Results showed that there was no significant difference in
Corsi for per game at the top (µ = 54.0048) and bottom (µ = 54.3579) rated rinks (n = 42, p =
.713). Furthermore, Corsi was significantly higher than the entire season average (52.1893) at
both the bottom-rated arenas (n = 42, p = .005) and the top-rated arenas (n = 42, p = .016). These
results do not support the perception that ice quality significantly affects player performance.
Some possible explanations include points per game and Corsi not accurately measuring
offensive performance, the overall talent of the home teams in those arenas, and the
psychological effect perception can have on performance.
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 2
Introduction
During the 2017-2018 season the NHL added its 31
st
team, the Vegas Golden Knights,
and with it its 31
st
arena and will add a 32
nd
in 2021-2022 when the yet to be named Seattle
franchise begins play. Nothing in these arenas is more important to the game of hockey than the
quality of the ice surface. Hall of Fame forward and current Red Wings GM Steve Yzerman said,
"I think ice still is very poor throughout the league. Players are resigned to the fact that the ice is
going to be bad in a majority of buildings--even new ones, where they spent a ton of money on
aesthetics and suites. But as far as I know they haven't put extra effort into significantly
improving ice quality.” (Farber, 2004). Every new arena has spent millions of dollars on
enhancing the fan experience with massive video boards and displays, in arena entertainment,
restaurants, etc. but it all ultimately comes down to the ice that allows the world’s best players to
put on a show. No other sport has a playing surface that is as integral to the game and requires as
much maintenance throughout. Former NHL Forward Jeremy Roenick said it best, “Ice is
everything…When ice is good you see better passing, better puckhandling, better games –
hockey’s beautiful. When the ice is chippy or snowy, and the puck’s bouncing and the passes
aren’t crisp, hockey’s real ugly” (Farber, 2004).
With the advancements in training, today’s NHL players are bigger, stronger, faster, and
more agile and the ice needs to keep up with them. On an ice surface that is only around one to
one and a half inches thick, one deep rut in can cause a player to be seriously injured. The New
York Rangers experienced two of these such instances in the late 1970s with former players Dale
Rolfe, who had to retire after severely fracturing his ankle when his skate got caught in a hole,
and Ulf Nilsson, who missed three months after his skate got caught in a rut while sustaining a
hit and shattered his ankle (Farber, 2004). Each of the arenas has different unique challenges to
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 3
providing the best possible ice to allow the players to perform and at the same time limit their
risk of injury.
Every arena in the NHL today is used for more than hockey, as all of them host events
like concerts, the circus, and basketball. In fact, over a third of NHL teams share their arenas
with NBA teams. It is not uncommon for an arena to host, within the span of a week, multiple
NHL and NBA games and a concert or two. There is a growing need to improve planning and
furnishing of athletic facilities and for those facilities to be multifunctional and meet various
social needs (Velickovic, Velickovic, & Krsmanovic, 2017). The constant turnover these arenas
go through can put a lot of stress on the systems designed to promote quality ice. During
concerts, where they have fans above the ice surface, soda and beer can seep through the floor
and onto the ice causing problems for ice crews (Farber, 2004). “At each stop on the 2001
Britney Spears tour, two tons of water was dumped onto the stage as part of her act, and at
NHL arenas some of it went through the flooring” (Farber, 2004). To maintain ice quality NHL
arenas do not use regular water to create the playing surface so while this might not sound like a
big issue it is. The water used to create NHL ice goes through a filtration process to remove
minerals and impurities which can make the ice too soft, after it goes through the filtration
system they add minerals back to it or the ice would be too hard (Staley, 2015). The NHL has
several standards for ice conditions to negate many of these issues.
Even though the arenas are all indoors weather can cause problems for the ice. According
to NHL Facilities Operations manager Dan Craig, the ideal conditions for quality hockey ice are
“an air temperature between 60⁰ and 64⁰ with 44% humidity, and an ice-surface temperature of
22⁰” (Craig, 2008). Those numbers are more difficult to reach at a Panthers game in Florida,
where even December through February the temperature outside is often 70⁰ or more with high
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 4
humidity, than a Canadiens game in
Montreal, where that type of weather may
only occur in the summer. This could explain
why in an NHLPA survey of over 300
current NHL players Florida was ranked the
worst ice and Montreal the best (NHLPA,
2018). Figure 1 depicts the results of a
different survey of 27 current and former players conducted in 2015, showing all warm weather
locations. This is not to say that it’s just high temperatures that cause the issue, arenas located in
cities where the climate can change drastically can run in to a lot of issues (Craig, 2008). While
Arizona or Vegas may have to deal with the heat at least the weather is consistent, and they
know what to expect, Columbus can see the temperature go from 30⁰ to 70⁰ to 40⁰ in the span of
a couple days.
Over the last few years NHL players have been more vocal with their concerns about ice
quality. In an ESPN interview with several players, coaches, and executives some of the
consistent complaints included soft ice which leads to a bouncing puck, too many non-hockey
events, and having to expect the ice not to be good every game (Custance, McDonald, Burnside,
& LeBrun, 2017). There were several issues that arose in the 2016-2017 NHL season that pushed
this subject to the forefront including rescheduling a game between the Detroit Red Wings and
Carolina Hurricanes to repair refrigerant leaks on PNC Arena’s cooling system and compressors
(Goldman, 2017). Some think it is more of a psychological issue, “Ice seems bad when someone
says it’s bad. When no one’s talking about it, no one notices it,” one NHL team executive stated
(Wyshynski, 2015)
Figure 1
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 5
(Custance et al., 2017). Whether it is in their heads or under their feet, players are taking notice
of the ice conditions.
In Pittsburgh, Sidney Crosby would spend time every day talking with the ice crew and
tell them exactly what he felt was wrong and dialogues like that have led to improved ice
(Custance et al., 2017). With players becoming more and more vocal about the quality, or lack
thereof, of ice this issue has started to get better. In 1997, the NHL hired Dan Craig to address
the ice issues and the NHL has since made a concerted effort to improve playing conditions
(Farber, 2004).
Many of the players who have talked about poor ice conditions have stated that it can and
will affect the quality of hockey played in those games. Former Arizona goalie Mike Smith said
after an overtime loss at home, “That ice out there is probably some of the worst ice I have ever
seen in my life… Not using an excuse, but that was bad. It’s been bad all year, but you can’t play
on that. When you’ve got other teams coming in complaining about it on the ice and we have to
skate on that all the time, like I said, it’s not an excuse but it’s something that has to get better.
It’s like slush out there” (Goldman, 2017). Arizona’s ice is often ranked as one of the worst in
the NHL. While the issue has been discussed by players like Smith, there are little to no studies
on the effects of ice quality on player performance. It is obvious that improved ice quality is
important to prevent injuries, but can it significantly affect the outcome of the game or at least
the scoresheet? Over the last several years the NHL has been looking at ways of increasing
offensive statistics including changing the depth of the goals and stricter regulations on
goaltender equipment. If increased offense is their goal, a better sheet of ice may help them reach
it. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of ice quality of NHL arenas on player
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 6
performance by comparing statistics from games played at the best and worst rated arenas and to
their season average.
Literature Review
History
Before hockey or figure skating became competitive sports, ice skating was a means of
crossing frozen waterways in northern Europe (Russell-Ausley, 2000). The first mechanically
refrigerated ice rink was opened in 1876 in Charing Cross, London (Martin, 2004). The success
of this rink spawned many others and the sudden popularity of ice hockey in the 1880s added to
the demand for construction of skating rinks (Martin, 2004). Thomas Rankin constructed in the
first mechanically refrigerated ice rink in the U.S. in 1879 at the Old Madison Square Garden in
New York City (Martin, 2004). Prior to 1918, most indoor ice rinks laid their pipes on wooden
stringers on levelled ground and covered it with sand to produce a cold floor base with which to
build ice, some rinks still use a similar system today because sand-based floors save on capital
costs and provide added accessibility to the refrigerated pipes (Martin, 2004). Most rinks today,
however, use a concrete floor to build their ice on which was first used in the Elysium rink in
Cleveland in 1918 (Martin, 2004). The original concrete floors were flawed though as they were
not constructed to withstand expansion and contraction, after years of experimentation a new
type of floor was designed and poured as a monolithic slab with no expansion joints (Martin,
2004). These crack resistant floors led to the construction of thousands of arenas that could be
used for multiple purposes, for example every NBA arena built since 1990 has included this type
of floor for the ability to have hockey games (Martin, 2004).
The National Hockey League was created in Montreal, Canada in 1917, the league
consisted of four teams all located in Canada (NHL timeline, 2016). In 1926, more American
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 7
teams join the league and outnumber the Canadian franchises, in 1942 due to the Great
Depression the league was reduced to the six teams known today as the Original Six, and from
1967 to today the league has expanded to 31, soon to be 32, teams (NHL timeline, 2016).
How Ice Rinks Work
With advances in ice rink engineering being relatively slow since the 1930s, many
similarities exist between modern rinks and the first rink built in 1876 London (Martin, 2004).
There are five main components to an ice rink’s refrigeration system: the chillers, compressors,
condenser, piping running throughout the floor, and the refrigerant (Russell-Ausley, 2000;
Steinbach, 2008). Figure 2 shows a cross section of a
typical ice rink floor and sub floor and includes the
following layers A) piping containing the refrigerant, B)
piping running throughout the floor, C) ice-bearing
concrete slab containing the piping, D) ice skating
surface, E) insulation between the cold floor and heated
concrete slab, F) heated concrete slab to keep ground
underneath from freezing, and G) a sand and gravel base
(Russell-Ausley, 2000).
There are two types of refrigeration systems used in ice rinks, indirect and direct
(Steinbach, 2000). An indirect system uses a liquid refrigerant that absorbs heat from a
secondary liquid, or brine, which pulls heat out of the rink floor as the brine is pumped through
the pipes running throughout the floor (Steinbach, 2000). In a direct system, the heat is removed
from the rink floor by pumping the primary refrigerant directly through the piping in the floor
Figure 2
(Russell-Ausley, 2000)
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 8
(Steinbach, 2000). There are roughly 27,000 liters or 7,000 gallons of liquid refrigerant running
through the piping under the floor at any time (R.C., 1994).
Direct systems may be more efficient, but most rinks today prefer the indirect systems
because they allow for safer control of potentially harmful refrigerants (Steinbach, 2000).
Indirect systems contain refrigerants such as ammonia, which is toxic, and
dichlorodifluouromethane (or R-22, as it is commonly known), a type of Freon that is potentially
hazardous to the environment, within a rink's mechanical room (Steinbach, 2000). Direct
systems, however, circulate these through the pipes in the rink floor, where potential for leaks is
much higher (Steinbach, 2000). Leaks can be difficult to detect especially with Freon, which is
odorless (Steinbach, 2000). Over the years rinks have used variations within their systems when
it comes to the type of liquid refrigerant, type of piping in the floor, type of chiller, or type of
compressor (Martin, 2004). All these variations have been made to lower costs, be more energy
efficient, and to be more environmentally friendly but in all are not that different from the rinks
built nearly a century ago (Martin, 2004; Steinbach, 2008). Everything going on within the
system is to build a relatively thin slab of ice that people can skate on safely.
How Ice is Built
The first step in building an ice surface is turning on the cold floor system and lower the
temperature to approximately -8⁰C or 17⁰F (Staley, 2015). Once the floor has reached the desired
temperature the crew begins by spraying a few thin layers of water with a spray boom, a type of
industrial-strength sprinkler system, and these layers freeze almost immediately (R.C., 1994;
Russell-Ausley, 2000). The best ice is built with water that is pure, but not too pure (Steinbach,
2008). Deionization and filtration of the water used to build ice sheets is used now at all arena
levels, from small community rinks to NHL arenas (Steinbach, 2008). The removal of impurities
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 9
such as suspended solids and gases is important to create and maintain a quality sheet of ice
(Steinbach, 2008). "Ice will always try to freeze pure, and it will always try to eject the
impurities, so you end up with a friable surface on top - or the frozen equivalent of froth - and
really poor ice," says Denis Leclerc, facilities maintenance coordinator for Maple Ridge (B.C.)
Parks and Leisure Services (Steinbach, 2008). This impure layer can not only be a problem for
the blades of ice skates but also taxes the rink’s refrigeration system more so than denser ice,
which exhibits far greater structural integrity and can withstand the rigors of ice hockey
(Steinbach, 2008). It’s not only easier to keep pure ice frozen, it’s also safer for players to skate
on and avoid injury (Steinbach, 2008). In Vancouver they had problems because their water was
considered too pure (Staley, 2015; Steinbach, 2008). After an engineer compared their water
with those from the top-rated rinks he found that it lacked a certain concentration of salts that the
others had (Steinbach, 2008). Once the salts were added to the purified water the arena staff
found they could maintain the ice sheet at a colder temperature without being too brittle
(Steinbach, 2008).
Once the first few layers of water are set up the crew uses a water paint mixture which is
pumped through the boom and creates the white base layer of the hockey rink (Russell-Ausley,
2000). This can take two to three layers to achieve the desired whiteness depending on the rink.
The next step is to cap that white layer with a few more layers of water before laying out lines
and logos (Russell-Ausley, 2000). The next step is measuring out the blue and red lines, the
faceoff circles and dots, hash marks where the players stand, goalie creases and the team and
corporate sponsorship logos (Staley, 2015). The painting process can take about eight hours from
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 10
start to finish (Staley, 2015). Some rinks have vinyl logos or
lines that do not need to be painted and can instead be laid
out and covered with a light layer of water to freeze them in
place. Once the markings and logos are completed the crew
uses backpack sprayers to cap each individual section before
bringing the boom back out to start building the ice (Russell-
Ausley, 2000). It is important to not use too much water at
the early stages of the process as it will melt away the paint,
the best method is gradually building the ice to avoid problems (Russell-Ausley, 2000). Once the
ice is thick enough the crew will switch to a flooding hose and eventually the ice resurfacing
machine to lay more water down and save time (Russell-Ausley, 2000). The whole process uses
about 48,00 liters of water (R.C., 1994). Figure 3 illustrates the layers that lie within a slab of ice.
“No other playing surface is so integral to its sport, so complex to maintain and so
misunderstood (Clinton, 2017).
Difficulty Maintaining Ice Quality
Once the ice making process is complete the challenge is to maintain quality ice for the
entirety of the NHL season which can last between seven to nine months. “Every game, at least
0.5 centimeters of the 3.17-centimeter-deep ice is ground off by the two teams of powerfully
built men flying along on steel blade skates at speeds nearly equal to that of a racehorse” (Staley,
2015). NHL players today possess more size, speed, and skill than ever before and that can cause
issues with the quality of ice, this is particularly an issue late in games (Clinton, 2017).
The air temperature and ice temperature must be adjusted to compensate for the heat and
humidity that will come in through arena doors (Russell-Ausley, 2000). The Carolina Hurricanes
Figure 3
(Russell-Ausley, 2000)
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 11
arena in Raleigh uses 12 dehumidifiers to keep the air in the 770,000 square foot facility dry
(Russell-Ausley, 2000). Ice conditions can vary greatly when temperature changes as little as one
degree (Russell-Ausley, 2000). Dan Craig set the NHL’s standards to meet for quality ice, but he
knows that those can be difficult to maintain when its 86 degrees outside with 66% humidity for
example (Craig, 2008). When the weather outside is uncooperative the arenas need to rely on
their facility crew and their equipment to ensure that the ice is the best it can be. They run two air
processors to control the temperature and humidity and have a third if need be, in games where
they anticipate large crowds they set the temperature even lower because with tens of thousands
of people in the arena the temperature will rise quickly (Craig, 2008). “People bring in a lot of
moisture and a lot of heat on their clothes,” Brendan Lenko said. “If (the arena) has the
equipment to deal with it, it’s no problem, but if they don’t it absolutely creates a huge load on
the ice” (Clinton, 2017). Matthew Miller, VP of facility operations at Quicken Loans Arena, says
they deal with humidity the “natural way,” which means they carefully balance the outside air
with air conditioning (Clinton, 2017).
The time between periods is no longer used solely for resurfacing the ice and even though
it may not be a major factor, some of the events that take place during this time can put added
stress on the ice (Wigge, 2001). On-ice promotions have become a big part of the fan experience
and adds an extra factor that arena crews must account for whether it is more skaters on the ice
or the cars that are driven out there during intermission. Even the ice resurfacing machines,
which are built to recreate quality, can create issues (Russel-Ausley, 2000). These ice resurfacing
machines use hot water, about 75⁰C, to melt the first few layers of ice and in doing so creating a
smoother surface (Staley, 2015). Because they use such warm water it is important for them to
allow enough time for the ice to set up before the teams come back out to play or they will have
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 12
a wet slushy surface. This hot water also can add to the humidity in the arena which must be
accounted for. The drivers must also be aware of their surroundings or they can create new issues
like in Detroit in 2016 where the Zamboni ran over one of the net post pegs and dragged it across
the ice causing a large, deep rut that required over 30 minutes of work to repair (Johnston, 2016).
“Of all the variables affecting arena ice – humidity, arena temperature and air currents,
ice temperature, water composition and the competence of the rink manager and Zamboni drivers
– the stress of an arena schedule jammed with nonhockey events is most significant” (Farber,
2004). Arenas house many different types of events and each one has their different requirements
or preferences, NBA wants the air temperature around 70 degrees while the NHL wants it around
64 degrees or ice-show performers like Disney on Ice prefer an ice temperature in the mid-to-
high 20s while the NHL maximum is 24 degrees (Farber, 2004). Former NHL forward Teemu
Selanne said that the best ice is in Europe where they do not use the arenas for other events, it is
all hockey and he feels that creates better ice and is the reason why European players perform so
well when they come to the NHL (Farber, 2004). The process of covering the ice for basketball
or concerts involves removing at least some of the boards, covering the ice with an insulation
material, and then the basketball court or concert stage is built on top of that (Clinton, 2017).
Switching back to a hockey rink involves a few more steps including removing the event floors
and insulated decking, putting the boards back in, edging the ice, dry cutting to remove dirt and
any other foreign substances from the top layer, a wet cut, and a flood (Clinton, 2017). “The
more it’s uncovered and the more oxygen and air that gets to an ice surface, the better it becomes
over time,” Miller said. “It’s a daily challenge in a multi-use facility like ours to really get the ice
surface to where it’s perfect all the time. If I didn’t have to cover it and I could leave it all the
time, it would be a hockey player’s dream. But I don’t have that luxury” (Clinton, 2017). With
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 13
over a third of the league sharing their arenas with NBA teams, unfortunately, these issues will
not be going away any time soon.
Entertainment Value of Arenas
Professional sport arenas today need to be more than just a facility for sport participation
with a playing surface, locker rooms, and training areas. They must be able to accommodate
several other functions such as shopping, dining, entertainment, hospitality, and educational and
political services (Velickovic et al., 2017). Spectators and customers of these arenas desire more
than just a view of the playing surface or stage, they want a clean and aesthetically pleasing
facility that they can enjoy outside of the event taking place. As new arenas are being
constructed around the world, each one seems to come with some new and innovative feature
that benefits the fans and adds to their experience. Planning and construction of these
multifunctional facilities should meet the principles and functions related to the capital expenses,
cost of implementation, customer satisfaction, the functions of the athletes and sports
management (Velickovic et al., 2017). Designers can focus on creating attractive and appealing
visual and virtual displays throughout the arena that can be used for informational or promotional
purposes (Velickovic et al., 2017). If the event is lacking in entertainment the facility must find a
way to fulfill that desire of the spectators.
An example of such an arena is Kombank Arena in Belgrade, Serbia (Velickovic et al.,
2017). The arena was modeled after Chicago’s United Center, home of the NHL’s Blackhawks
and NBA’s Bulls (Velickovic et al., 2017). This multifunctional facility was designed to host
sports, such as ice hockey and basketball, as well as concerts, theatrical performances, and
circuses (Velickovic et al., 2017). Like many professional athletic facilities, Kombank Arena has
become one of the symbols of the city and a prestigious place for performance and hosts, on
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 14
average, three events per week (Velickovic et al., 2017). Most NHL arenas would have a similar
average events per week as the Kombank Arena, and likely more with the high number who also
serve as home arenas for NBA teams.
Is there a Home Ice Advantage?
While ice quality may affect player performance it is possible that some of that affect
may be from the perceived advantage of being the home team in sports. There is a statistic that
shows in sports that the home team wins over 50% of games played under a balanced home and
away schedule (Liardi & Carron, 2008). During the 2006-2007 NHL regular season, home teams
won 56.0% of games decided in regulation or overtime but only 47.1% of shootouts (Liardi &
Carron, 2008). The home teams also won a majority of the face-offs taken in all three zones of
the ice (Liardi & Carron, 2008). NHL rules also favor the home team when it comes to face-offs
including the home team getting last change which means they can put a player they believe has
the best chance to win the face-off against whoever the away team sends out, as well as that
home player getting the final stick placement in the face-off circle which gives them an
advantage at winning the face-off (Liardi & Carron, 2008).
While the study above focused on the home ice advantage on face-offs, it can relate to
overall offensive performance. Winning face-offs, particularly in the offensive zone, leads to
more opportunities to score. This study will focus on players playing on the road and comparing
offensive performances during those games, the home ice advantage threatens to affect the
results. Rules are also an affect that can skew things toward the home team and alter the potential
performance of the visiting player. It is interesting that home teams won a minority of shootouts
during the season and may be because it is one-on-one and primarily relies on the shooter and
goalies talents and abilities.
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 15
Opinions from Around the League
Players have become more vocal about ice quality in the last several years. One common
theme is that it is a league wide problem and there is no easy solution. "I think you'd be hard-
pressed to find a place that has good ice,” Defenseman Brooks Orpik said (Custance et al., 2017).
The players have learned to deal with the poor ice and have come to expect it wherever they are
playing. New Jersey Devils defenseman Ben Lovejoy said "I think that NHL ice, you expect [it]
to not be perfect. A lot of things go on in these buildings. We are professional athletes that are
the best at our game. We're not expecting perfect ice sheets every night. We have to go out and
execute on them" (Custance et al., 2017).
Poor ice conditions have caused teams and players to adjust the way they prepare for and
play the games. Ken Hitchcock, who coached the Stars from 1996 to '02 said, "In Dallas we
knew that in October or May we were going to play a very conservative game after 10 minutes of
every period. Our team took advantage of tough ice conditions. We'd change our counterattacks.
The players would remind themselves of that on the ice. I remember Colorado coming in during
the playoffs and complaining about [the ice]. People were psyched out" (Farber, 2004). The poor
ice may even be an advantage for the home team because they know what to expect and the
visiting team will take time to adjust their game plans. It may also intimidate them when they
expect to play poorly due to the ice quality.
The most common theme among players, however, is that if the ice conditions are right
their performance will be better because they can skate faster, and the puck moves smoother. "I
feel like the puck is bouncing a lot. I don't know if that's the ice, if that's the puck or what it is.
Some nights it's good, some nights it's bad. Who knows what it is?” said Ryan Suter, defenseman
for the Minnesota Wild (Custance et al., 2017). When the puck is not bouncing and moves
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 16
smoother on the ice the players have more control and can create more offense because of that.
James van Riemsdyk discussed how the league wants more scoring and how the ice affects that
when he said, "but for the sake of the product of the game -- we talk about goal scoring and stuff
like that -- if you have a better ice surface and the puck isn't bouncing around as much and guys
can make plays, you would think that would be as good a reason as any to get more goals in the
league. I know they're working on it and they're trying, but it hasn't been good of late" (Custance
et al., 2017). Jeremy Roenick further explained that, "for a player who relies on skating, a fresh,
hard sheet of ice probably increases his speed by two steps. Ice is the difference between scoring
and not scoring. On a fresh sheet the puck lies nice and flat, and the shooter will get all of it and
put it where he wants. If the ice is bad, the puck flips on edge before the pass reaches your stick,
taking away a scoring chance” (Farber, 2004).
A bouncing puck can be the difference in scoring and not scoring, players can get off a
quicker and more accurate shot if the puck is moving smoothly across the ice and they do not
need to settle it down before taking their shot. Some of the league’s elite players struggle and the
perception is that it is due to the ice, “It's disappointing because it brings the quality of the game
down, the speed ... you see some of the skill guys like [Nicklas] Backstrom or [T.J.] Oshie
having a tough time settling pucks down, you know it's probably the ice,” said Brooks Orpik
(Custance et al., 2017). The perception is there but does perception equal reality?
Perceived vs Actual Performance
Players and coaches believe that improving the ice quality will lead to better performance
and potentially more offense which the league has been pushing for recently. These complaints
have motivated the league to investigate the issues and come up with ways to improve the quality
of the ice (Goldman, 2017).
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 17
As evident from the quotes above, players perceive they play better when the ice
conditions are optimal. This study will look to determine whether that perception is reality.
Previous studies have been performed in the education field to determine the effect perceived
difficulty can have on test performance. In one study, it was found that the perception of a
difficult test stimulated worry in the students and deteriorated their actual performance (Chang,
2015). It is possible that the NHL players who know that the ice condition will be poor at certain
arenas will create a sense of worry about their potential performance and that could affect their
actual performance. Another study found that the perceived test difficulty recalled after
examination had greater effect on arousing worry and emotionality (Chang, 2015). In this case it
could be that players recall past experiences and poor performances at certain arenas and that can
affect their future play.
In Chang’s 2015 study, students were administered multiple tests and they were asked to
rank these tests in order of perceived difficulty, the results of their examinations were then
compared to assess whether they actually performed worse on the most difficult and better on the
easiest. It was expected that students would then perceive that they scored lowest on the most
difficult and highest on the easiest, but this was only the case for about two thirds of the
participants (Chang, 2015). Perceiving the test as difficult did not necessarily mean that students
felt that they scored the lowest on it, difficulty does not always lead to bad performance. The
NHL players may still perform well in games at arenas that they believe are more difficult to
play in.
What Improvements have been made?
Since the NHL brought in Dan Craig to oversee the league’s ice, he has implemented
several policies that have led to improved ice over the years (Wigge, 2001). It starts with the
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 18
water that makes the ice, pure but not too pure, the league now has standards for the water that is
used to create the best possible ice (Staley, 2015; Steinbach, 2008). Arenas are required to use
hot water when resurfacing the ice between periods and due to the potential of the water to not
freeze in time Craig and the NHL mandated that on ice promotions during intermission last no
longer than twelve minutes to allow time for the ice to set up and can fine teams that go over the
time limit (Farber, 2004).
The discussions players have with arena ice technicians is also leading to better ice
quality. Brooks Orpik points to a relationship between his former teammate and their ice
technician, “I think Pittsburgh actually has good ice, after years of Sidney [Crosby] going over ...
it started with all of us bitching about it. It finally got to the point where Sid would go every day
and constructively sit down with the guys who ran the rink and tell them exactly what he felt was
wrong with it. It was good dialogue between them, and the ice started getting better and better.
That's the one place I think is consistently pretty good" (Custance et al., 2017). The players
should take their concerns to the men and women who work on the ice to see if there are
solutions. It has worked in Pittsburgh and it may work in other arenas if the players who skate on
the ice multiple times per week work with the ice technicians and explain what they see and feel
and how they want the ice to be.
The NHL and Craig also looked at the pregame events and how they can affect the ice
and made some changes to the way those are managed (Farber, 2004; Wigge, 2001). They
banned pregame youth hockey events to keep the ice pristine for the NHL players (Wigge,
2001). The pregame player warmups were shortened from twenty minutes to sixteen minutes to
lessen the load the NHL players put on the ice (Farber, 2004). In the same vein, prior to the
second and third periods only the skaters who will be starting are allowed on the ice (Farber,
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 19
2004; Wigge, 2001). Due to the size and skill of the NHL players they create a lot of snow on the
ice during play which can cause issues with the movement of the puck and to combat those
issues the league uses skaters to shovel the snow off the ice during tv timeouts (Farber, 2004;
Wigge, 2001).
There are several things the league does behind the scenes now to improve the ice
quality. The league began player surveys during the season to allow them to voice their concerns
and potentially allow arena managers to adjust early in the year (Wigge, 2001). Arena managers
now are told where their rinks rank in the league which allows them to ask what they need to do
to be ranked higher (Wigge, 2001). It is not just the ice that can cause issues, the puck moves
better when it is frozen so off-ice officials are required to keep the pucks in a refrigerator prior to
their use (Wigge, 2001). There are leaguewide operations meetings to exchange ideas and rink
operators are encouraged to take ice-making courses given by the Ontario Recreation Facilities
Association and its USA Hockey affiliate, STAR (Farber, 2004). Figure 4, below, represents a
player pole of the best and worst ice in the NHL.
Methods
Using the player poll from the 2017-2018 NHL season above, players offensive statistics
will be analyzed to determine whether perceived ice quality does influence player performance.
The website https://www.hockey-reference.com/ will be used to collect player statistics from the
Figure 4
(NHLPA, 2018)
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 20
2017-2018 season. The statistics that will be studied are points (goals and assists) per game and
Corsi for percentage, which is calculated by dividing the total even strength shots taken by the
player’s team while that player is on the ice by the combined total of shots taken by both teams
while that player is on the ice (Nandakumar & Jensen, 2019). “Corsi helps identify teams and
individual players generating more scoring opportunities through shots, which ultimately should
result in more goals and wins.” (Nandakumar & Jensen, 2019, p23). A previous study found that
Corsi produced the highest correlation (.51) of any of the raw statistics when predicting the
number of goals a player would score in the future (Riley, 2017).
One forward and one defenseman from each of the twenty-one teams who do not play
their home games in either the top five or bottom five ranked arenas were selected for this study.
The players selected are listed in Appendix A and their statistics collected for the study are listed
in Appendix C. One of the criteria for choosing these players were they are among the higher
scoring and performing players on each team and played multiple games at both the higher and
lower ranked arenas. These players, outside of some of the elite talents, are within the peak age
range for player performance. One study found that most hockey players reach something close
to peak performance by the age of 23 or 24 and their actual peak in their late 20s and typically
sees a significant decline by their early (forwards) to mid (defensemen) 30s (Brander, Egan, &
Yeung, 2014). The average peak performance age for forwards was found to be between 27 and
28, and for defenseman between 28 and 29 (Brander et. al., 2014). The average age of the
forwards selected was 26.95 and the average age of defensemen selected was 27.52 during the
2017-2018 season. Three of the players selected were also eligible for salary arbitration at the
end of the season, players who were eligible for arbitration at the end of the 2002-2003 season
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 21
saw a significant increase in points per game from the previous season (Shirreffs & Sommers,
2006).
Paired t-tests were performed on the players’ statistics to determine whether there was a
significant difference for offensive statistical performances between the top and bottom rated
rinks. It was hypothesized that there will not be a significant difference in points per game but
that Corsi will be significantly higher at the highest rated arenas. I believe total points is not as
accurate in assessing player performance because of the effect of secondary assists in which a
player gets credit for an assist when they make the pass prior to the pass to the goal scorer. This
pass could have occurred on the opposite end of the ice and have had little to do with the
resulting goal.
Results
On a point per game basis, the paired samples t-test showed that while the average points
per game was slightly higher at the top-rated rinks there was no significant difference between
the players performances at the top-rated and bottom-rated rinks (n = 42, p = .771). The average
points per game for the players used in this study at the top five rated rinks was .7069
points/game, the average at the bottom five rated rinks was .6759 points/game, and the season
average was .8183 points/game. While both means were lower than the entire season average for
all forty-two players studied, only points per game at the bottom five rated rinks was
significantly lower than the season average (n = 42, p = .007).
Corsi was predicted to be significantly higher at the top five rated arenas than the bottom
five but the paired samples t-test results showed that there was no significant difference between
the two means (n = 42, p = .713). Interestingly, the average Corsi for the players studied was
slighty higher at the bottom five rated rinks, 54.3579, than the average at the top five rated,
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 22
54.0048. Furthermore, Corsi was significantly higher than the entire season average (52.1893) at
both the bottom-rated arenas (n = 42, p = .005) and the top-rated arenas (n = 42, p = .016) for all
forty-two players studied.
Discussion
Players, coaches, and analysts have all maintained that players will perform better when
they feel that the playing surface is at its best, the results of this study have shown that that may
not be the case. From a points per game and Corsi standpoint the results from the 2017-2018
season show that there is no significant difference between player performance at the arenas they
feel have the best ice and those they feel have the worst ice. When you look at the season as a
whole the players performed significantly worse in points per game at the bottom-rated rinks
than they did on the season, however, they significantly outperformed their season average in
Corsi at both the top and bottom rinks.
This study raises the question of how we should evaluate player performance. Analytic
statistics in sports is still relatively new and hockey has lagged behind other sports in data
analysis (Riley, 2017). Total points can be a misleading statistic when it comes to player
performance. Shots can ricochet off of other players and into the goal and assists and secondary
assists are simply just the pass or two passes prior to the goal and in some cases had minimal
impact in creating that goal. The statistics used in this study are univariate performance
measures, to fully capture a players performance more multivariate methods should be used
(Riley, 2017). Using measured variables for offense, defense, and possession, Riley’s 2017 study
focused on creating such a multivariate measurement for performance. Future research should
look into examining the effect of ice conditions more well-rounded statistics like these.
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 23
Another potential explanation for there being no significant difference between the two
statistics is the poor performance of the teams who play their home games in the bottom-rated
arenas. While studies have shown that there can be a home ice advantage in both the outcome of
the games and player statistics, overall team ability does come into play (Liardi & Carron, 2008).
Of the teams who play in the bottom five arenas only Anaheim made the playoffs, and in fact
they were the only one to finish in the top half of the league standings. When comparing the
averages for the top and bottom rated arenas the average rank was 16.4 to 19.2, the average wins
was 39.8 to 37.6, and the average points was 89.6 to 86. Teams in the top-rated rinks had better
seasons on average than those in the bottom. It is possible performances were more positive in
those arenas because of the home teams’ inability to defend their home ice. It is also possible that
those teams performed so poorly because they play on such a poor playing surface. If they
practice on those rinks or on some with similar ice quality it could affect their training and
overall ability to play even when they play on high quality ice.
An aspect of the game of hockey that may have impacted the results of this study is the
different types or roles of players and how those effect offensive performance. All players
studied were at the top of their teams scoring lists, but that does not mean that they were some of
the best offensive players. A previous study examined the different roles players play and what
impact those roles have on player performance (Chan, Cho, & Novati, 2012). Their study found
that top line forwards and offensive defensemen are the ones who have the greatest impact on
goals and assists while other roles were more impactful in the areas of hits and blocked shots
(Chan et. al., 2012). On less successful teams, players may be playing outside their roles and
though they are the higher scorers, they would likely be lower on another team that has more
offensive talent.
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 24
Also, as discussed in Chang’s (2015) article it is possible that even though players
perceived that their performance was worse at the lower rated arenas it does not mean that they
actually did not perform well. With the lower quality of ice, the players likely had to work harder
in order to perform at a high level and it might be that difficulty that they are focusing on and not
their actual performance. The difficulty of the opponent may also influence the player’s
perceived performance, because the opponents are not as good, players may undervalue their
performance against them because they expect better results.
Conclusion
Perception is not always reality. Player performance is affected by several variables and
the condition of the ice is just one of those variables. The NHL has worked to institute new
standards and dictate the process by which ice is built and maintained in order to create a
consistent playing surface throughout the league and yet we still see players complaining about
the ice conditions all over the league. This study has shown, however, that it may not be the ice
that is the primary variable affecting player performance. Poor ice quality as well as poor
performance may be more of a psychological issue.
Players and coaches have designed game plans and changed the way they play by
assuming that ice conditions affect their play. As many have said, the ice is considered poor
across the league and there may not be many rinks that have high quality ice. Having to deal with
ice conditions has become a part of the game and the players have adapted. While this study did
not find a significant impact of ice quality on playing performance, the result might be due to the
relativity of the performance. Meaning, ice quality would equally influence both offensive and
defensive performances simultaneously. It is still possible that the overall entertainment value of
hockey games might be affected by quality of ice.
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 25
This study’s purpose was to determine whether ice quality affected player performance
but may have raised a different question of whether the current measures of performance are
enough to truly evaluate the issue. Sports analytics have come a long way but are still lagging
behind in hockey and it may be the case that the metrics by which we evaluate performance are
not where they need to be to determine whether the ice quality has the effect that the players are
adamant it does.
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 26
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PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 30
Appendix A
Team
Forward
Defenseman
Boston Bruins
David Pastrnak
Torey Krug
Buffalo Sabres
Ryan O'Reilly
Rasmus Ristolainen
Chicago Blackhawks
Patrick Kane
Duncan Keith
Colorado Avalanche
Nathan MacKinnon
Tyson Barrie
Columbus Blue Jackets
Artemi Panarin
Seth Jones
Dallas Stars
Tyler Seguin
John Klingberg
Detroit Red Wings
Dylan Larkin
Niklas Kronwall
Los Angeles Kings
Anze Kopitar
Drew Doughty
Nashville Predators
Filip Forsberg
P.K. Subban
New Jersey Devils
Taylor Hall
Will Butcher
New York Rangers
Mats Zuccarello
Brady Skjei
Ottawa Senators
Mike Hoffman
Erik Karlsson
Philadelphia Flyers
Claude Giroux
Shayne Gostisbehere
Pittsburgh Penguins
Sydney Crosby
Kris Letang
San Jose Sharks
Joe Pavelski
Brent Burns
St. Louis Blues
Brayden Schenn
Alex Pietrangelo
Tampa Bay Lightning
Nikita Kucherov
Victor Hedman
Toronto Maple Leafs
Mitch Marner
Jake Gardiner
Vancouver Canucks
Daniel Sedin
Alexander Edler
Vegas Golden Knights
William Karlsson
Colin Miller
Washington Capitals
Alexander Ovechkin
John Carlson
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 31
Appendix B
T-Test
Paired Samples Statistics
Mean
N
Std. Deviation
Std. Error Mean
Pair 1
PPGTop5
.7069
42
.34464
.05318
PPGBottom5
.6795
42
.37974
.05860
Pair 2
CorsiTop5
54.0048
42
5.04724
.77881
CorsiBottom5
54.3579
42
6.24569
.96373
Pair 3
PPGTop5
.7069
42
.34464
.05318
PPGSeason
.8183
42
.25703
.03966
Pair 4
PPGBottom5
.6795
42
.37974
.05860
PPGSeason
.8183
42
.25703
.03966
Pair 5
CorsiTop5
54.0048
42
5.04724
.77881
CorsiSeason
52.1893
42
2.51191
.38760
Pair 6
CorsiBottom5
54.3579
42
6.24569
.96373
CorsiSeason
52.1893
42
2.51191
.38760
Paired Samples Test
Paired Differences
t
df
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
95% Confidence Interval
of the Difference
Lower
Upper
Pair 1
PPGTop5 -
PPGBottom5
.02738
.52451
.08093
-.13607
.19083
.338
41
.737
Pair 2
CorsiTop5 -
CorsiBottom5
-.35310
6.18517
.95439
-2.28053
1.57434
-.370
41
.713
Pair 3
PPGTop5 -
PPGSeason
-.11143
.38521
.05944
-.23147
.00861
-1.875
41
.068
Pair 4
PPGBottom5 -
PPGSeason
-.13881
.31808
.04908
-.23793
-.03969
-2.828
41
.007
Pair 5
CorsiTop5 -
CorsiSeason
1.81548
4.69948
.72515
.35101
3.27994
2.504
41
.016
Pair 6
CorsiBottom5 -
CorsiSeason
2.16857
4.72758
.72948
.69535
3.64179
2.973
41
.005
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 32
Descriptives
Descriptive Statistics
N
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
Std. Deviation
PPGTop5
42
.00
1.60
.7069
.34464
PPGBottom5
42
.00
1.29
.6795
.37974
PPGSeason
42
.30
1.56
.8183
.25703
CorsiTop5
42
43.82
65.50
54.0048
5.04724
CorsiBottom5
42
39.98
65.71
54.3579
6.24569
CorsiSeason
42
46.70
57.00
52.1893
2.51191
Valid N (listwise)
42
PERCEIVED ICE QUALITY IN NHL ARENAS AND THE EFFECT ON PLAYER OFFENSIVE PERFORMANCE 33
Appendix C
Player
Top 5
PPG
Bottom 5
PPG
Season
PPG
Top 5
Corsi
Bottom 5
Corsi
Season
Corsi
N. Kucherov
0.5
1.29
1.56
56.92
55.93
53.6
S. Crosby
0.4
1.25
1.09
55.96
65.71
55.9
A. Kopitar
1
1.25
1.12
49.43
46.15
53.1
N. Makinnon
0.6
1
1.31
49.44
44.78
50.9
T. Hall
1
1
1.22
62.2
55.04
53.3
D. Larkin
0.5
1.14
0.77
54.92
47.1
50.7
T. Seguin
0.71
0.57
0.95
59.29
55.67
51.55
W. Karlsson
0.44
1.14
0.95
53.84
59.64
53.8
R. O'Reilly
0.67
1.17
0.75
57.1
49.87
50.8
M. Zuccarello
0.33
0.57
0.66
57.98
49.46
46.7
P. Kane
1
0.67
0.93
55.62
55.22
52.5
D. Pastrnak
1
1.14
0.98
65.5
56.99
55.5
A. Panarin
1.5
0.43
1.1
58.88
65.36
57
J. Pavelski
0.71
0.29
0.8
52.41
53.76
53.1
F. Forsberg
0.78
0
0.96
46.99
55.6
53
B. Schenn
1.22
0.4
0.85
54.5
64.3
54.6
A. Ovechkin
1.6
1.13
1.06
56.96
63.48
51.4
M. Marner
0.67
0.5
0.84
54.78
57.88
52.9
D. Sedin
0.88
0.33
0.68
58.34
57.42
53.4
M. Hoffman
1
0.38
0.68
49.28
56.49
49.4
C. Giroux
0.6
0.88
1.24
61.9
58.33
53.2
V. Hedman
0.4
1
0.82
54.18
49.47
52.2
K. Letang
1.4
0.29
0.65
51.62
63.03
55
D. Doughty
0.88
0.75
0.73
47.26
49.8
53.2
T. Barrie
0.57
0.8
0.84
53.69
42.14
48.3
W. Butcher
0.67
0.17
0.54
53.45
54.7
53.9
N. Kronwall
0.33
0.29
0.34
46.3
55.7
49.5
J. Klingberg
0.43
0.86
0.82
58.13
59.94
53.7
C. Miller
0.56
0.86
0.65
57.33
65.49
56.3
R. Ristolainen
0.8
0.29
0.56
58.2
50.19
48.5
B. Skjei
0.33
0.25
0.3
47.87
46.01
47.2
D. Keith
0.44
0.67
0.39
46.68
50.25
52.4
T. Krug
1.17
0.29
0.62
63.12
59.31
54.6
S. Jones
0.33
0.29
0.73
54.12
53.41
54.1
B. Burns
0.86
1.29
0.82
53.04
55.14
54.4
P. Subban
0.67
0.33
0.72
48.98
54.93
51.2
A. Pietrangelo
0.67
1
0.69
49.51
49.86
51.5
J. Carlson
0.8
0.5
0.83
43.82
49.94
49.2
J. Gardiner
0.5
0.83
0.63
49.5
49.52
50.7
A. Edler
0.57
0
0.49
50.06
39.98
46.8
E. Karlsson
0
0.5
0.87
50.8
55.15
51.4
S. Gostisbehere
0.2
0.75
0.83
58.3
54.89
51.5
