Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP)
TARGETED
STRATEGIES TO
ACCELERATE SAE
PROFICIENCY
The Department for Education requests attribution as:
South Australian Department for Education | APRIL 2021
2 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
This resource provides strategies to support students’
language development and progress through the LEAP
Levels. Teachers can use the strategies to intentionally
address students’ identified language needs, accelerate
their development of Standard Australian English
(SAE), and move them on in their level of ‘Learning
English: Achievement and Proficiency’ (LEAP).
CONTENT ORGANISATION
Aspects of language
Strategies in this resource address the following key
aspects of language. Colour is used to indicate the
aspect being addressed as follows:
• cohesive devices (yellow)
• sentence structure (orange)
• verbs and verb groups (green)
• circumstances (blue)
• nouns and noun groups (maroon)
• evaluative language (purple).
An overview of content is provided at the beginning
of each aspect for quick identification of the learning
sequences. An introduction to each language aspect
describes its threads and explains associated forms
and functions with examples.
Participants, processes and
circumstances
Colour is also used to identify at the word level which
aspect of language is being demonstrated. At times,
this includes aspects that are not considered in the
levelling process.
Targeted strategies to accelerate SAE proficiency,
particularly at sentence level grammar (sentence
structure), often involve explicitly teaching the 3
components of a clause:
Functional components
of a clause
Form typically
expressed by
a central process: what’s
going on?
a verb/verb group
one or more participants:
who or what is involved?
a noun/pronoun/
noun group or
adjective/adjective
group
(optional) extra details of the
circumstances surrounding
the process: when, where,
how, why did it happen?
an adverb/adverbial
group, prepositional
phrase or a noun
group
Two of the components of a clause also directly
correspond to 2 aspects of language, which are
included in the levelling process at the word and
word group level:
• verbs and verb groups (processes): here, the focus
is both on function (dierent types of processes)
and accuracy of grammatical form (eg tense).
The table also shows the typical 1:1 relationship
between form and function
• circumstances: here, the focus is on function,
what meaning is being added about the process
and the table shows that various forms can express
this function.
Participants are not identified as part of the levelling
process. Rather there is a focus on the form: nouns
and noun groups since the ability to build and
manipulate noun groups is key in developing academic
SAE. Maroon (not red) is used for nouns and noun
groups because they can be used to express either
participants or circumstances, as indicated in the table.
Proficiency bands
Following the introduction to the language element,
learning sequences with targeted strategies are
provided for 4 proficiency bands:
• LEAP Levels 1–4 and leaping to levels 5–6
• LEAP Levels 5–6 leaping to levels 7–9
• LEAP Levels 7–9 leaping to levels 10–12
• LEAP Levels 10–12 leaping to levels 13–14.
A chart, at the beginning of each band, provides: the
number and name of learning sequences, the language
in focus, and the genre/s used within each sequence.
HOW TO USE THIS
RESOURCE
1. Begin by assessing students to identify their
current LEAP Level and specific areas in need
of development.
2. Set tailored targets and learning goals.
3. Based on identified needs and learning goals,
go to the relevant aspect of language.
4. Use the overview of the content to identify where
the band matching your target level begins and
turn to that page.
5. Use the chart to identify a learning sequence that
addresses your language focus.
6. Follow the sequence or adapt for your context.
Strategies and texts may need to be adapted to
be age-appropriate for your students. Adaptations
may also be necessary to ensure they are supporting
the development of curriculum knowledge.
7. Refer to explanations in the introduction to the
selected aspect of language to build your knowledge
as required.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES INTRODUCTION | 3
HIGHIMPACT STRATEGIES
This resource supports the implementation of the
following high-impact strategies in Literacy and
Numeracy First
(DECD, 2018a):
• targeted dierentiated teaching
• clear learning intentions
• explicit teaching and
• ongoing feedback.
It particularly focuses on 2 literacy improvement
strategies:
• development of oral language for academic
purposes
• strengthening writing through meta-knowledge
of language.
Furthermore, it supports 2 high-impact strategies for
EALD students:
• translanguaging
1
: actively encouraging students to
draw on, make connections with, and use their first
language/s (L1s) or dialects to develop Standard
Australian English proficiency. Many learning
sequences use Unite for Literacy free digital
picture books, narrated in a variety of languages.
• multiple exposures: using multimodal resources
and providing students with multiple opportunities
to encounter, engage with, and elaborate on new
knowledge, language and skills.
Learning sequences are also informed by Myhill’s
(2018) LEAD principles for eective explicit teaching
of grammar/language:
• Link the grammar being introduced to how it
works in mentor texts.
• Explain the grammar through examples, not
lengthy explanations.
• Authentic texts used as models.
• Design-in high-quality discussion about grammar
and its eect.
LANGUAGE AND CONTEXT PURPOSE, AUDIENCE
AND REGISTER
As students’ proficiency in SAE develops across the LEAP Levels, there is an increasing focus on the
development of academic language and the ability to operate successfully in a wider range of contexts
or registers. The register continuum is a valuable reference for discussing choices in texts and their
appropriateness and eectiveness for given contexts, including specific purposes and audiences.
Register continuum
everyday, concrete What: field – subject matter technical, abstract
informal, personal Who: tenor – roles and relationships formal, impersonal
spoken, dialogic, specific,
‘here and now‘ context
How: mode of communication
written, monologic,
generalised context
Tier 1, 2 and 3 vocabulary
The development of EALD learners’ vocabulary across
the LEAP Levels can also be connected to the 3-tiered
system developed by Beck, McKeown & Kucan
(2013):
1. Tier 1 words are basic and high-frequency words
used in everyday conversation. While assumed to
be familiar to most students, EALD students will
often need this vocabulary explicitly taught as part
of building knowledge of the field.
2. Tier 2 words are those used by ‘at standard’ students
in academic contexts. They are words that can be
used across contexts to add clarity and/or precision.
These words appear more frequently in written texts
than in oral language. Whether a word is considered
to be Tier 2 or not will dier depending on the year
level. Given their importance in academic success
and transferability across topics and curriculum
areas, they warrant a great deal of attention.
1
For more on translanguaging, see ‘What is translanguaging?’, EAL Journal, available at
http://TLinSA.2.vu/translanguaging (accessed October 2020)
everyday, informal,
spoken
more specialised
and more formal
technical, abstract,
formal, written
4 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES INTRODUCTION
3. Tier 3 words are those that relate to specific fields
of knowledge. They have specialised meanings
according to the curriculum area and convey
technical, subject and topic-specific knowledge,
such as the sciences. These words need to be
taught in the context of the curriculum area tasks
specific to building content knowledge on a
particular topic.
See also the department’s Best Advice paper:
Vocabulary
(DECD, 2016).
2
CONTEXTUALISED
LEARNING
Explicitly teaching about language is best done where
language use occurs in authentic dialogue about a
curriculum topic. The starting point for planning then
is the identified target language in the context of
relevant curriculum learning. Key mentor and/or
model texts can then be identified or developed
to ensure that they provide important curriculum
content and the identified language features.
TEACHING AND
LEARNING CYCLE
The learning sequences should be implemented
within an intentionally planned teaching and learning
cycle, enabling teachers to integrate oral language
(‘talking to learn’), reading and writing practices to
develop deep learning and understanding of genre.
This provides EALD students with time and multiple
exposures to new language, skills and knowledge.
The diagram in the next column shows how the
teaching and learning cycle is situated in dialogic
processes, which lead to understanding about
content, text and language
(DECD, 2018b). Many of
the strategies here involve group and pair work
because ‘talk is a critically important tool in securing
meaningful learning about language’
(Myhill, Jones,
Watson & Lines, 2016:5).
Carefully sequenced learning is essential for students to
develop enough knowledge, skills and understanding
to transfer their learning:
The movement from surface learning—the facts,
concepts and principles associated with a topic
of study—to deep learning, which is the ability to
leverage knowledge across domains in increasingly
novel situations, requires careful planning.
(Fisher, Frey, Hattie & Thayre, 2017:18)
Building knowledge of the field
Developing content knowledge for specific learning
areas should include activating prior knowledge,
hands-on activities, exploratory learning – talk
accompanying action, learning to hear, and trying out
new vocabulary. This is also the time for engaging
learners’ interest in the topic: it is vital for engagement
and motivation for learning to be inclusive of students’
cultural experiences and welcome the use of home
languages in these initial discussions.
Supported reading
When learning to read is located in learning about
curriculum topics, there is a clear context and purpose
for reading which improves both engagement and
comprehension. It is a time to refer back to questions
about the learning topic and develop knowledge and
understanding in both the content and the language
required to access and utilise the content. Reading
procedures, such as shared reading, guided reading
and close reading, can focus on specific strategies
needed to comprehend learning area texts, for
example, the structure, language and key vocabulary
Supported
writing
Supported
reading
Learning
about the
genre
Independent
use of the
genre
Building
knowledge
of the field
Assessing
student
progress
T
A
L
K
I
N
G
T
O
L
E
A
R
N
Teaching and learning cycle
(Adapted from DECD, 2018b:13)
Identified
target
language
Curriculum
topic
Authentic
mentor and/or
model texts
2
http://TLinSA.2.vu/Big6vocab
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES INTRODUCTION | 5
of an information text in science. Talking about
learning area texts and responding to reading
through writing journals and other daily activities
prepares students for composing their own writing
in the target genre.
The key point is that through talk and writing,
students are able to build a richer representation
of the content of the texts they read and deal with
the question that vexes every writer: How can I
find a way to say that so others will understand?
(Duke, Pearson, Strachan & Billman, 2011:78)
Learning about the genre
Ensure that students understand that genres have
particular purposes and are written with a specific
audience in mind. Wherever possible, connect
the target genre to outside of school examples,
so students understand they are learning to use
language ‘like a scientist’ or ‘like an historian’.
Provide multiple examples of the target genre and
support students to identify the generic features
they need to incorporate into their writing. Make the
target genre the focus of dialogue in the classroom,
so students can determine what they need to know
and learn to shape their content knowledge using the
target genre. Many of the language activities described
in this document will be situated in this part of the
teaching and learning cycle, as EALD learners in
particular will require repeated opportunities to learn
and practise new language structures.
Students learning English need to know how written
English diers from spoken English
(Gibbons, 2011).
By explicitly teaching language at word, sentence
and text level, you build each student’s repertoire
of language resources:
Showing learners the grammatical choices writers
make, and the grammatical choices they can make as
writers, can alter the way their writing communicates
and their understanding of the power of choice.
(Myhill, 2018)
Supported writing
Support students to incorporate all they have learned
about content, genre and language into a new text
through joint construction, prior to students writing
independently. Time invested in this process is essential
if students are to move from ‘talk about content and
texts’ to the denser and highly structured language
required to purposefully write about content for an
intended audience. The diagram in the next column
represents the process, which can occur over several
sessions, beginning with the teacher modelling
through ‘think aloud’
(Rossbridge & Rushton, 2014).
The joint construction process is highly interactive
and involves a gradual release of responsibility as
the teacher hands over the writing to the students:
The teacher’s role is to support the composition of
the text through the use of strategies which focus
the students’ attention on their language choices
when expressing their ideas. While the focus of
the joint construction is on composing a written
text, it is spoken language which is central to the
activity …
(Rossbridge & Rushton, 2014:4)
Independent use of the genre
As students prepare to write independently:
• jointly construct success criteria and annotate
examples of the target genre at dierent levels
so that students can have clear goals
• maintain high expectations for all students and
be available to support small groups who require
additional assistance
• incorporate opportunities for students to reflect
and evaluate the writing process so they can name
what they have learned and what they want to
improve on next time.
Student
composes
Teacher
‘thinks
aloud’
Student
questions
Teacher
paraphrases
Student
comments
Teacher
recasts
Joint
construction:
teacher and
students talk
about writing
and compose
together
Elements for supporting students in joint construction
(Adapted from DECD, 2018b:15)
The Department for Education requests attribution as:
South Australian Department for Education | APRIL 2021
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP)
TARGETED STRATEGIES TO ACCELERATE SAE PROFICIENCY
COHESIVE DEVICES
COHESIVE DEVICES: INTRODUCTION 2
Reference items 2
Text connectives 2
Orientations to the message 2
Sentence openers 2
Topic, circumstances and subordinate clauses 2
Passive voice 2
Nominalisation 3
LEVELS 1–4 AND LEAPING TO LEVELS 5–6 4
1. Pronouns referring to animals and things 4
2. Pronouns referring to people and things 5
Subject pronouns – who is doing the action? 5
Object pronouns – who/what actions are done to and possessive pronouns: whose is it? 5
3. Reference to point out which one 6
4. Text connectives to create sequence 6
LEVELS 5–6 LEAPING TO LEVELS 7–9 7
5. Sentence openers in procedures and protocols 7
6. Sentence openers in procedural recounts 8
7. Sentence openers in sequential explanations 9
Passive voice 9
Openers that link back to create flow 9
8. Text organisation in arguments 10
Whole text – structure 10
Paragraphs to group and develop ideas 11
LEVELS 7–9 LEAPING TO LEVELS 10–12 12
9. Text connectives when elaborating ideas 12
10. Sentence openers and text connectives for structure and orientation 14
11. Openers and connectives for cause and contingency 15
LEVELS 10–12 LEAPING TO LEVELS 13–14 16
12. Strategic orientations and text organisation 16
Text and paragraph openers as orientations 16
Text organisation and ecient orientation using nominalisation 17
Manipulation of text connectives 19
Orienting to angle, contingency and cause 19
Orientation to abstraction through passive voice and nominalisation 21
Resource 1: Pronoun chart 23
Resource 2: Changing sentence openers 24
Resource 3: Sentence openers to create flow 25
Resource 4: Animals should not be kept in zoos 26
Resource 5: Text connectives and logical relationships 27
Resource 6: The legacies of Ancient Rome for modern society 28
Resource 7: Moving from informal to formal language 29
Resource 8: Discussion/argument: Should children play computer games? 30
Resource 9: Register continuum 31
2 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES
COHESIVE DEVICES: INTRODUCTION
Spoken and written texts that connect and flow well for a reader/listener utilise various cohesive devices, including:
• reference items: pronouns and demonstratives/pointers
• text connectives
• orientations to the message.
Reference items
This includes using an element of language to refer to something in a shared physical context (Pass it to him);
a shared cultural context (The queen is our longest serving monarch); or to another part of the text, such as
a word, word group or larger section of the text. These reference items connect or tie parts of a text together,
making it cohesive. The main elements considered here are pronouns and demonstratives.
Text connectives
These connect sentences and paragraphs and show the logical development of ideas across the text. They
function to:
• organise a text
• connect adjacent paragraphs and sentences in logical relationships (see Resource 5: Text connectives and
logical relationships for examples).
Orientations to the message
The opening of a text (a title and/or introduction), the opening of a stage/paragraph (sub-heading or topic
sentence) and the openings of sentences help orient a reader. They assist the reader to predict and follow the
development of ideas across the text. The connection between these openers at whole text level, at paragraph
level, and at sentence level (including clause level) is what makes a text flow and gives it coherence.
Sentence openers
Decisions about what is placed at the beginning of a sentence are determined by the topic, the genre and the
register of the text. As students gain control of language and an increasing range of genres and registers, they
begin to manipulate the elements of a sentence, adopting genre patterns, and consciously choosing how to
orient their audience to the message.
Topic, circumstances and subordinate clauses
Initially, sentence openers orient only to the topic or the action (in the case of a procedure). Then circumstances
and later subordinate clauses are brought to the front of the sentence to orient readers/listeners to details of
time and place and, later, to manner, condition, cause and contingency. These rearrangements of the sentence
do not require a change in grammar.
Passive voice
Passive voice and nominalisation also allow alternative orientations to the message. However, both require
changes to the grammar of the clause. In the passive voice, the clause is rearranged so that the ‘done to’
rather than the ‘doer’ of the action comes before the verb and so becomes the subject of the clause.
See the examples on page 3.
To form the passive voice with simple tenses:
• the person or thing that is ‘done to’ is brought to the front of the clause
• an auxiliary ‘to be’ verb is added to denote the tense (present, past or future)
• the -ed (en) participle form of the verb is used
• if the ‘doer’ is included, then ‘by’ is added to precede the ‘doer’.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES | 3
Present: Active Passive
My mother
takes
my brother
.
My brother
is taken
by
my mother
.
actor/doer verb done to done to verb ‘by’ actor/doer
Past: Active Passive
My mother
took
my brother
.
My brother
was taken
by
my mother
.
actor/doer verb done to done to verb ‘by’ actor/doer
Future: Active Passive
My mother
will take
my brother
.
My brother
will be taken
by
my mother
.
actor/doer verb done to done to verb ‘by’ actor/doer
To change the verb group to the passive voice for the continuous aspect:
• select auxiliary ‘to be’ according to the subject and tense: am, is, are, was or were, will be
• add the auxiliary being
• use the past participle, for example, taken.
For example: I am being taken by my mother; she was being taken by mother; they will be being taken
by my mother.
To change the verb group to the passive voice for the perfect aspect:
• select auxiliary ‘to have’ according to the subject and tense: have, has, had, will have
• add the auxiliary been
• use the past participle, for example, taken.
For example: I have been taken by my mother; he had been taken by my mother; they will have been taken
by my mother.
Nominalisation
Nominalisation allows a writer/speaker to move beyond orienting to people, concrete objects and circumstance
to orient to abstractions. It also allows an orientation to an action/event or a quality through a change in
grammatical form, eg from verb to noun or adjective to noun. This change in grammatical form then requires
subsequent grammatical changes to create a new sentence:
• Many fish died after the factory illegally dumped their chemicals and polluted the river.
> The death of many fish resulted from illegal dumping of chemicals that polluted the river.
> Water pollution resulting from illegal chemical dumping caused a marked increase in fish deaths.
• The story is neither credible nor believable.
> The credibility of the story has been called into question.
4 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
LEVELS 14 AND LEAPING TO LEVELS 56
LEVELS 1–4
Learning sequence Language in focus Genres
1. Pronouns referring
to animals and things
• subject pronouns: it, they
• object pronouns: it, them
• possessive pronouns: its, theirs
• descriptions and descriptive
reports
2. Pronouns referring
to people and things
• subject pronouns – who is doing the
action?
• object pronouns – who/what
actions are done to?
• possessive pronouns – whose is it?
• narratives (picture books, fables
and simple retells)
• personal recounts
3. Reference to point out
which one
• demonstratives and pointers: this,
that, these and those
• narratives
• oral interactions
LEAPING TO LEVELS 5–6
4. Text connectives to create
sequence
• simple text connectives and
circumstances of time
• personal recounts
• narratives (picture books, fables
and simple retells)
1. Pronouns referring to animals and things
Engage
• Introduce a topic, such as polar bears. Display pictures and ask students to describe features from the
pictures, beginning sentences with ‘Polar bears …’ or ‘A polar bear …’.
• Read a simple text, such as Polar Bears Rock!
1
, that continually repeats the noun group.
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Repeat using a text, such as A Waddle of Penguins
2
, that begins each page with ‘Penguins’ and then refers
back to them using pronouns (they, their) or pointers (these birds).
• Display a chart such as the one below of pronouns that refer to things:
Subject Object Possessive
Singular: 1 it it its
Plural: 2+ they them their/theirs
• Explain that there are many dierent pronouns and that, to begin with, you will focus only on the subject
pronouns used at the beginning of sentences (before the verb).
• Point out the pronouns that begin sentences or appear before the verb (subject pronoun: it, they). Explain
that the author can refer to the topic without using its name all the time.
• Model circling the pronoun and linking it to the noun/noun group. Students repeat.
• Students match the correct pronoun card: ‘it’ and ‘they’ to pictures and/or nouns/noun groups, eg penguins
– they, a penguin – it.
• In pairs, students complete cloze activity on a familiar text, filling in deleted subject pronouns.
• Provide a text that continually repeats the topic and have students identify when to use a pronoun and
which pronoun to use.
1
McGuee P (2015) Polar Bears Rock!, Unite for Literacy, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/McGuffee2015 (accessed October 2020)
2
McKay W (2019) A Waddle of Penguins, Unite for Literacy, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/McKay2019 (accessed October 2020)
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES | 5
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
2. Pronouns referring
to people and things
Suggested model text
Goldilocks and the three bears
3
or any familiar story/
fable, including those from students’ first languages
(L1s).
Subject pronouns – who is doing
the action?
Engage
• Read a simple version of a familiar story, where
each page/segment begins with character’s name.
• Students sequence pictures of a familiar story.
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Display the text and point out the first words on
each page/segment. Explain that the repetition
connects the parts of the story and tells the
reader they are going to hear more about these
characters.
• Students join in reading, chorusing the character
names, at the beginnings of each page/segment.
• Point out the pronouns at the beginning of
sentences (subject pronouns), explaining that these
refer to the characters without using their name
all the time. Ask students how this is done in L1.
• Model and then involve students in circling the
pronoun and drawing a line to the noun, eg:
One day Goldilocks was walking in the forest.
She
saw a house and knocked on the door.
She
went inside.
• Ask students if they have dierent words to refer
to males and females and/or singular or plurals
in L1. Display Resource 1: Pronoun chart. Point
out the many dierent pronouns to refer to people
and things. Explain that, to begin with, the focus
will be on subject pronouns used at the beginning
of sentences. Go through the chart with students
adding examples from L1.
Students can add L1 equivalents, where they
exist and/or make their own chart to show how
pronouns work to refer to people in their L1.
The dierence between ‘you and I’ or ‘you and
me’ is not formal/informal or correct/ incorrect.
It is whether it is subject or object, eg it is correct
to say, ‘You and I will be in trouble’ because it is
correct to say, ‘I will be in trouble.’ It is correct to
say, ‘That might happen to you and me’ because
it is correct to say, ‘That might happen to me.’
• Students match the correct pronoun cards
to pictures and/or names of the characters,
eg Goldilocks – she; The three bears – they;
Father – he.
• Read other texts with students, identifying
pronouns and to whom they refer.
• Students read a text to a partner and together
identify the pronouns and to whom they refer.
• Students complete a cloze activity on a familiar
story, filling in deleted subject pronouns.
Object pronouns – who/what
actions are done to and possessive
pronouns: whose is it?
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Use the same text, and similar processes as above
to explore object and possessive pronouns in
Resource 1: Pronoun chart. For example:
> Who or what actions are done to? (object),
eg Goldilocks tried Baby Bear’s porridge and
she ate it all up. Baby Bear cried. Mother Bear
comforted him.
> Whose is it? (possessives) such as ‘my’ in my
porridge, my chair, my bed.
• Explore how these pronouns change when moving
from dialogue to narrator voice, eg She tried Mother
Bear’s porridge, but her porridge was too cold; She
tried Father Bear’s chair but his chair was too big.
Baby Bear looked at his chair. It was broken.
3
British Council (2015) ‘Goldilocks and the three bears’, Daily Motion, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Goldilocks
(accessed November 2020)
6 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES
3. Reference to point out
which one
Engage
• Place a large bowl on a table near you and a medium
bowl further away.
• In pairs, students share which bowl they think is
Father Bear’s and which is Mother’s. Ask a student
to point to Father Bear’s bowl. Ask the student ‘This
bowl?’ Student repeats ‘This one’ and all students
repeat, ‘This bowl. This bowl is Father Bear’s bowl’.
Ask another student to point to Mother Bear’s
bowl, repeating the process, but this time using
‘That bowl’. Having students point to the bowl
introduces them to the function of the ‘pointer’
in the noun group.
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Introduce a chart of demonstrative pronouns and
explain when they are used:
> for items in close proximity this (one), these
(more than one)
> for items at a distance that (one), those (more
than one).
• Students make up sentences using demonstrative
pronouns in spoken and written contexts.
• In pairs, students ask and answer questions like
‘Which toy(s) do you like best?’, eg I like this/that
one; I like these/those.
4. Text connectives to create
sequence
Engage
• Display a familiar narrative or a model recount that
begins with a focus on time.
• Underline the beginning of the first sentence,
pointing out that it doesn’t begin with the character/
person. Ask what it begins with, eliciting ‘time/when’.
• Discuss why an author would begin that way,
eg helps bring the reader into the story/recount,
lets them know when the events happened, and
prepares them for the type of text they will read.
• Provide a range of familiar stories/fables, online or
in books. Students identify and record the various
ways that narratives with a focus on time begin.
Create an anchor chart.
• Create another anchor chart of ways that recounts
begin with a focus on time. Compare the charts.
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Provide a simple model text and underline the
beginnings of sentences that focus on time. Ask
students if they notice any patterns, eg sentences
start new paragraphs, a comma after the time
word/phrase.
• Discuss how this helps the reader to understand
the order and timing of events.
• Students resequence a cut-up model text and
discuss what helped them.
• Create a set of ‘time’ sentence starters, including
those that can open or start:
> a whole-text (Long ago; On the weekend)
> a new or next part of the text (The next day;
Then; Soon; Next; After lunch; Later).
• If appropriate to the learning goal, point out
that some of these are adverbial phrases giving
the circumstances of time and others are text
connectives, logically connecting and sequencing
the events in time.
• Model how to choose a ‘whole-text opener’ to
begin a recount or narrative and then a ‘new part’
opener to continue your story.
• Students use these for whole-class or small group
round-robin storytelling (retelling a familiar story,
recounting class events of the day), either orally
or as a joint construction of a written text.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES | 7
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
LEVELS 56 LEAPING TO LEVELS 79
LEVELS 5–6 LEAPING TO LEVELS 7–9
Learning sequence Language in focus Genres
5. Sentence openers in
procedures and protocols
• orienting to:
> circumstances and subordinate
clauses of time and condition
> circumstances of manner
• protocols and procedures
6. Sentence openers
in procedural recounts
• text connectives to sequence
• passive voice to remove doer
• procedural recounts
7. Sentence openers in
sequential explanations
• passive voice
• openers that link back to previous
sentence for flow
• sequential explanations
8. Text organisation
in arguments
• signposting for the reader:
> whole text openers
> paragraph openers
> text connectives
• expositions: arguments
5. Sentence openers in procedures and protocols
Engage
• Refer to ‘Project 8: Procedure texts’
4
, one of many activities for multicultural classrooms.
• Provide a range of protocols (class rules, how to borrow a library book/play a game, emergency evacuation)
and procedures (recipes, art and craft activities, instructions for science experiment) in English and L1.
• Students identify what they have in common, eg they all tell you how to do something; may have pictures
and include lists, dot points or numbers to show sequence.
• Focusing on the English texts, draw out that instructions usually start with a verb (action process) and that
this is the grammar pattern used to give commands.
• Students compare this pattern to the pattern in L1 texts.
5
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Highlight processes/verbs in green. (If students are familiar with the parts of the clause, analyse clauses for
participants, processes and circumstances as described in Sentence structure Levels 1–4.)
• Draw attention to places in the text where something other than a process is used to begin the sentence,
eg Gradually add the liquid ingredients.
• Discuss why the pattern might be changed, eg because it is important for success or safety that the step
is done at a particular time or in a particular manner.
There may also be places where, rather than giving a command, statements are made because some
information is needed about the step.
4
See Heugh et al (2019), available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Project8ProcedureTexts (accessed November 2020).
5
See also Verbs and verb groups 3 ‘Action processes‘.
8 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
• Students rearrange the command and discuss the
changed eect and possible outcome, eg ‘Add
the liquid ingredients gradually’ – you might pour
them all in before you read ‘gradually’ and the
mixture could be lumpy.
• Create an anchor chart of alternative sentence
openers appropriate to the topic.
• Classify these as circumstances or subordinate
clauses and by the type of information they provide,
eg time: immediately – When the dough has risen;
manner – quickly; condition – If the mixture is
too sticky.
6. Sentence openers
in procedural recounts
Engage
• Explore the purpose of procedural recounts to record
how a process was carried out.
• Using a familiar procedure, provide a model of
a procedural recount, initially using active voice.
(See Resource 2: Changing sentence openers,
which provides an example of 3 texts about making
compost: a procedure and 2 procedural recounts,
one in active voice and the other in passive.)
• Students examine the dierences in the grammatical
choices between the original procedure and the
procedural recount. Colour-coding at least the
beginnings of sentences is helpful.
• Elicit 4 main changes:
> a doer (participant) has been added in front
of the verb
> commands have changed to statements
> the verb is in past tense since the action has
been done
6
> text connectives added to show the sequence
of actions and organise the text, replacing the
numbers used to sequence steps in the procedure.
• Students jointly or independently write a procedural
recount of a familiar procedure.
• Discuss how the patterns of a procedure and
a procedural recount match their genre purpose.
• In pairs, students examine the 2 procedural recounts
in Resource 2. Share observations and reflections
on choices, patterns and eects.
• Explore the purpose of procedural recounts in many
curriculum areas, eg to record how a process was
carried out so that a reader understands what was
done and can repeat the process. As such, the ‘doer’
of the actions is irrelevant and is usually omitted.
This happens, for example, in science experiments.
• Explain that we can remove the ‘doer’ from
a sentence by changing the grammar (using
passive voice).
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Model making the changes to the beginning of a
class procedural recount, explaining and showing
visually the steps involved.
7
I added the liquid.
The liquid was added by me
.
• Students write 2 to 3 sentences on cards, rearrange
sentences and verbalise steps.
• In pairs or individually, students rewrite remaining
sections of the text.
• Students independently write a procedural recount
in passive voice and annotate/explain choices.
• Students underline, colour-code and annotate
(name the kinds of) sentence openers.
Sentence openers in commands and
statements
In statements, the opener includes everything before
the verb. In commands, the opener includes the verb
and anything that precedes it.
• Students write procedural recounts in active and/
or passive as relevant to the purpose and audience
for other procedures they have followed: as a class,
in small groups, pairs, or individually.
6
See Verbs and verb groups for more ideas about focusing on past tense.
7
See ‘Passive voice’ on pages 2–3 and the Glossary for more details about active and passive voice.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES | 9
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
7. Sentence openers in
sequential explanations
Engage
• Watch, without audio, a video of a process being
studied, such as a YouTube clip on recycling glass.
8
• Ask students what they see happening and scribe
responses. Guide using:
> the simple past tense – what happened? People
put glass bottles and jars into a recycling bin.
Rubbish collectors picked them up, OR
> present continuous – what is happening?
Someone is putting glass in a recycling bin.
Rubbish collectors are picking it up.
• Provide a written explanation of the same process,
such as How glass is recycled.
9
• Students discuss dierences, first in small groups,
then whole-class sharing. During whole-class sharing:
> elicit that the written explanation uses simple
present tense to show that this is what always
happens
> contrast this to the tense used in student
responses to questions about the video.
• In the recycling guide, after the first step, it doesn’t
say who is taking the glass or doing other actions:
there are no people in the pictures or the text.
Discuss why the first doer is included, eg because
they want us to put our glass in a recycling bin.
Passive voice
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Explain that in many schooling subjects, and in the
wider community, when a process is explained we
are usually more interested in what was done than
who did it. For example, if we want to learn how
glass is recycled or how milk gets from the cow
to our table, we don’t need to know that a truck
driver picks up the recycling or the milk. So, the
grammar patterns change to remove the doer and
focus on what is done: passive voice.
• Model making the changes to the beginning of the
scribed text, explaining and showing visually the
steps involved.
Consumers throw glass into a recycling bin.
Glass is thrown into a recycling bin by consumers
.
• In pairs, students write the next 2 to 3 sentences
and physically rearrange the sentence, verbalising
the steps they are taking.
• Students, in pairs or individually, rewrite remainder
of the text.
Openers that link back to create
flow
Engage
• Display models of a range of sequential explanations,
eg milk production, digestion, respiration, water
cycle, life cycle.
• Point out that many visuals in sequential explanations
are flowcharts and that these match the purpose:
explaining a series of steps to create or produce
something.
• Ask students how the visual texts accompanying a
range of explanations show the flow, eg numbered
steps, arrows connecting pictures, repetition of
things from one picture to the next.
• Explain that the language patterns of explanations
also create flow and sentence openers have an
important role in this.
Metaphors for flow
The metaphor of dominoes or of chaining could be
used – where the beginning of one sentence links
back to the end of the previous one so we see a
chain of events.
Flow in explanations
The flow in explanation texts is achieved by taking
the new information given at the end of one sentence
(or clause) and using it to begin the next sentence
(or clause).
In Resource 3: Sentence openers to create flow this
is mainly achieved by changing the noun group
(adding or deleting elements) to pick up previously
mentioned ideas, eg taken to a recycling centre –
At the centre, the glass is washed to remove any
labels and dirt – The clean glass.
On 2 occasions the noun group is part of a circumstance
of place: At the centre; At the bottle factory.
Subordinate clauses could also be used as openers to
create flow: Once the glass has been sorted …
8
For example, Recycle Devon (2010) The smashing story of recycling glass, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/SmashGlass
(accessed November 2020).
9
‘How glass is recycled’, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/RecycleGlass (accessed November 2020).
10 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Provide students with jumbled sentences from
a model explanation that flows well, eg the text
in the right column of Resource 3 where sentence
openers create flow.
• Students reconstruct the text, discussing what
helped them to do so, underlining/circling and
drawing arrows to show the connection.
• Display Resource 3 and compare the flow of a text
written in active voice and one written in passive
voice. Discuss the patterns and their eects. Point
out that the passive voice allows us to focus on
the ‘glass’ in the beginning of each sentence and
to connect back to previous ideas and carrying
them forward to create flow.
• Use arrows to show the connection between the
last parts of one sentence and the beginning parts
of the next sentences.
• Create a cloze activity, deleting parts of the openers
that link back for students to complete, eg:
Next, the bottles and jars are taken by a truck
to the recycling centre.
At , bottle tops and lids are
removed before the glass is washed to remove
any labels and dirt.
The is then sorted into dierent
colours.
Once , it is crushed into small
pieces.
The are sent by truck to
a bottle factory.
At , the crushed glass is mixed
with some silica sand and then put into a big furnace,
where it melts and turns into a liquid.
Finally, the flows out of the
furnace.
• Provide students with an explanation written in active
voice, eg the left-hand column of Resource 3, and
model rewriting the first 1 to 2 steps of the process
in passive voice and to ensure good flow. Have
students continue the process in pairs.
• Students draw a flow chart of a familiar process
involving humans and write an explanation in the
passive voice, ensuring they maintain the pattern
of flow.
‘This’ as a sentence opener to refer back and carry
an idea forward could also be highlighted.
10
8. Text organisation
in arguments
Whole text – structure
Engage
Suggest a culturally inclusive metaphor to students,
eg an author takes a reader on a journey. Some texts,
like arguments, have:
• a text opener (introductory paragraph/s) that
provides a map showing us where we are headed,
the route we will take, and some places we will
stop along the way
• paragraph openers (text connective and/or topic
sentence) that are like signposts telling us where
we are on the map
• sentence openers (text connectives, circumstances
and subordinate clauses) to signal how we are
getting from one place to another or one idea
to another
• a final paragraph (conclusion) that tells us our
journey has finished: it is a brief reminder of the
places (ideas) we have visited and where we
are now.
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Introduce the text structure of a 3 reason argument,
such as Resource 4: Animals should not be kept in
zoos, by reading the introduction of a model text
and using ‘think alouds’ to demonstrate how you
are taking note of the author’s signposts to set
yourself up for the journey.
• Then read just the first sentence of the first reason
(body) paragraph, modelling how you continue
to notice signposts and signals to follow the map.
• Read the first sentence of the second reason
paragraph and invite students to identify the
signposts and what they are telling you.
• Students read just the first sentence of the third
reason paragraph to a partner, identify the signposts
and discuss what they are telling the reader.
• Read the conclusion and model ‘think alouds’.
10
See Verbs and verb groups 13 ‘Relating processes: expanding choices‘ – ‘Grammatical changes when using a causal relating verb‘.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES | 11
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
• Annotate the text to show how topic sentences
connect back to the ‘map’ provided in the
introductory paragraph: teach and use the meta-
language of ‘text opener: introduction’; ‘paragraph
opener: topic sentence’ and ‘sentence opener’. Make
the connection that each of these openers orients
the reader to the message at various levels of the
text. (Resource 4 uses colour to show connections
between the arguments introduced in the opening
paragraph, topic sentences and conclusion, as
well as underlining for text connectives or simple
alternatives that act as signposts.)
• Provide the same or a similarly organised argument,
cut into paragraphs. Students reconstruct it, noting
what helped them to do so.
Paragraphs to group and develop
ideas
• Provide sets of the 3 reason paragraphs (Resource 4)
as jumbled sentence strips (keep the topic sentences
coloured coded). In small groups, students match
sentences to appropriate topic sentence and order
sentences to create 3 paragraphs.
• Introduce a fork
11
as a visual metaphor that can
be used to understand the structure of a 3 reason
argument text at the whole text level and
paragraph level.
• Display a large fork image and write the position
statement on the handle and the 3 reasons on
the prongs.
• Use 3 smaller forks and write one of the reasons
on each handle and the elaborating ideas,
examples or evidence on the prongs.
• Students read another argument text and use one
large and 3 smaller forks to note-take (backward
plan/map) the arguments.
• In small groups, students use a large and smaller
forks to plan their own argument texts, oral or
written.
11
Adapted from Exley, Kirven & Mantei (2015:126–129).
12 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
LEVELS 79 LEAPING TO LEVELS 1012
LEVELS 7–9 LEAPING TO LEVELS 10–12
Learning sequence Language in focus Genres
9. Text connectives when
elaborating ideas
• text connectives
• this, these, that and text connectives
for logical development of paragraphs
• ecient text structure using
nominalisation and orientations to
guide the reader
• orientation to cause and
contingency
• expositions: arguments,
discussions
• factorial and consequential
explanations
10. Sentence openers and
text connectives for structure
and orientation
11. Openers and connectives
for cause and contingency
9. Text connectives when elaborating ideas
In genres such as arguments, discussions, factorial and consequential explanations; body paragraphs tend to
begin with a point/topic sentence, followed by elaborating sentences (to expand, extend or give examples) and
may conclude with a sentence that links back to the topic or leads on to the next point. (This pattern is often
referred to as PEE/L or TEE/L.)
Revise
Discuss the various ways paragraphs develop an idea by elaborating on the main point/topic of the paragraph,
such as:
• expand (say the same thing in more detail)
• extend (give additional information)
• exemplify (give an example)
• explain (provide causes/eects).
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Locate or write example paragraphs related to your topic of study.
• Model and jointly identify words in elaborating sentences that signal their functions and show the development
of ideas and their logical connection.
• Annotate as shown in the examples from 2 topics below:
Annotated examples of developing the topic sentence
Bold has been used for demonstrative this and yellow highlight for
text connectives
.
Explain/define
The Industrial Revolution was the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840.
(Topic/Point)
The term, ‘Industrial Revolution’, refers to the transition from earlier technology to new manufacturing
processes.
(Elaboration)
Expand/explain
An advantage of early technology in farming was that very little pollution was produced.
(Topic/Point)
This was because there were no fuel-powered machines to pollute the atmosphere since the power came
from the hard work of human’s animals.
(Elaboration)
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES | 13
Annotated examples of developing the topic sentence (continued)
Extend
However
, a disadvantage of this stage of farming development may have meant that not everyone was
employed.
(Topic sentence)
As a result
, some people may not have been able to feed and clothe themselves
properly.
Subsequently
, this may have led to more crime and more social problems.
(Elaboration extending
idea showing possible consequences)
Exemplify/give examples/evidence
One theory is that Aboriginal people came from Asia.
(Topic sentence) There is some evidence to support
this.
For example
, groups of people in Asia today who have physical resemblances to some Aboriginal
people and who may be part of the same original racial group.
(Elaboration)
• Read examples without cohesive devices and discuss the eect this has. Draw out their important role in
connecting ideas, creating flow and providing orientation for reader.
• Point out that referring back and forth in texts becomes more complex as texts become longer with more
complex ideas.
• Explain that pronouns and demonstratives (this/that/these) often refer to complex participants or large
segments of text.
• Deconstruct texts by circling demonstratives and connecting to relevant pieces of text. For example, in the
examples above, each ‘this’ is used to refer back to the whole idea contained in the previous sentence.
• Students annotate paragraphs from other texts classifying/explaining the various functions of the sentences
and the words used to signal this to the reader, such as the example below:
Canteens also have a trac lights method: green light foods are …, orange light foods are …, and red
light foods are …
This method
of food identification is …
• In pairs students match sentences to the appropriate topic sentences and then place sentences into order
for logical development of the ideas.
• Set up a cloze activity where the signal words have been removed. Students determine the logical connection
between the ideas and insert an appropriate signal.
• Create a set of ‘text connective’ cards. Students sort into various logical relations, eg showing cause-eect,
adding information, contrasting, clarifying or exemplifying, showing condition or concession. Turn this into
an anchor chart and add to it as students encounter more in texts they read. See Resource 5: Text connectives
and logical relationships.
• Create a series of statements related to a topic being studied. Pick and read a statement at random and model/
jointly construct (oral or written) selecting a text connective from the chart to begin an elaboration of the idea.
• Remind students to use the text connective chart in group discussions to help shift to academic language
in their dialogic talk and to hold each other accountable.
• Make the flow and logical development of ideas within paragraphs a key focus when providing feedback and
in peer and self-assessment.
• Students annotate own texts to highlight where they have used demonstratives or text connectives, justifying
their choices.
See learning sequence 8 ‘Text organisation in arguments‘, particularly the ‘fork’ metaphor on page 11. Elaborations
on the prongs could be ‘classified’ and text connectives placed on top of each prong to show how the point is
developed and how the elaborations are connected and flow.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
14 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
10. Sentence openers and text
connectives for structure and
orientation
Links to other genres
The activities in this sequence could be adapted
to teaching the structure of:
• factorial explanations, eg factors contributed
to an event such as WW1 or a phenomenon such
as climate change or unemployment
• consequential explanations, eg consequences
of an event or phenomenon such as European
settlement of Australia, climate change, regular
exercise.
Engage
• View short videos about a topic of study such
as the pros and cons of playing competitive sport,
eg U14 FC Barcelona console their heartbroken
opponents
12
or The benefits of competitive sports
for kids
13
.
• Provide each student with 4 post-it-notes
(8 if generating ideas for and against).
• Watch the videos again. Drawing from the video
or their own experience/knowledge, students note
down 3 to 4 good things about the chosen topic
(a word or phrase for each idea on a separate
post-it-note). Add 3 to 4 bad things for a focus
on a discussion.
• If students are struggling to generate ideas, suggest
they consider other perspectives, eg What might a
parent say? A friend or sibling? A teacher or coach?
• Model grouping similar ideas, using a ‘familiar’
topic such as school uniform.
Benefits of school uniform
Saves
money
Don’t get
teased
Saves time
deciding
what to
wear
Need fewer
clothes for
school
Good
quality last
longer
Puts you
in the right
mind for
school
Public know
what school
you go to
No
competition:
who has the
best/most
clothes
Can
wear same
clothes for
several days
Promotes
sense of
belonging
Don’t
have to
keep up with
fashion
• In small groups, students share their ideas and
group those that are alike, aiming to end up with
3 to 5 groups of good things (and 3 to 5 groups
of bad things).
• Make explicit that each group of ideas will now
form the basis of a paragraph.
• Point out that in sorting ideas into groups, they
may have had 1 to 2 isolated post-it-notes that
they chose to discard. Alternatively, they may see
them as important and worthy of development.
• Explain that they now need a ‘heading’ word or
phrase for each group (likely an abstract noun or
nominalisation). For the school uniform example,
these could be: savings, cost, financial/economic
benefit.
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Explain that we can use these headings words/
phrases to succinctly create:
> a text opener (introduction) that previews the
overarching ideas
> paragraph openers (topic sentences) that clearly
preview the paragraphs.
12
Good Play Guide (2018) ‘Are competitive sports doing more harm than good to children’s mental health?’, available
at http://TLinSA.2.vu/GoodPlayGuide (accessed October 2020). The video, U14 FC Barcelona console their heartbroken
opponents, is part way down the page.
13
Hawkins N (2014) The benefits of competitive sports for kids, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Hawkins2014 (accessed October 2020)
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES | 15
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
• Model/jointly construct an introduction and topic
sentences using headings words.
• List simple text connectives: Firstly, Secondly, Thirdly
and generate alternatives on an anchor chart.
• Using the headings and the anchor chart, groups
construct an introduction and topic sentences.
Example introduction and topic sentences
using ‘heading’ word/phrases
Recently there has been much discussion about
the compulsory wearing of school uniform. While
some argue for freedom of choice, there are many
good reasons for wearing school uniform. These
include time and cost savings, a sense of belonging
and an increased focus on learning.
One argument for school uniforms is cost saving.
In addition, school uniforms create a sense of
belonging and school pride.
A third benefit is a greater focus on learning.
11. Openers and connectives
for cause and contingency
Engage
• Display a model text related to the genre/topic
of study, eg Resource 6: The legacies of Ancient
Rome for modern society.
Resource 6 has been analysed and annotated to
show a variety of cohesive devices working across
the text, which could also be focused on as revision.
Revise text structure and orientations at the whole
text and paragraph level, using activities such
as those outlined in learning sequence 8 ‘Text
organisation in arguments‘.
• Display 3 versions of a paragraph from the model
text, eg Resource 7: Moving from informal to
formal language.
Point out that each paragraph begins with the same
topic sentence but that the elaborations are
expressed dierently. Students read and discuss
the dierences in eect of the 3 versions. Which do
they think is better/best and why? Which is more
spoken-written? Which flowed and developed the
ideas better? Which sounded more ‘expert’? Where
would the 3 versions be on the register continuum?
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Model identifying and underlining sentence
openers (what precedes the verb) in the first few
elaborating sentences of version 1 in Resource 7.
• Jointly identify the sentence openers in the next
few elaborating sentences.
• In pairs, students continue identifying the sentence
openers in the remaining elaborating sentences
of version 1 and the elaborating sentences in
version 2 and 3.
• Discuss what this analysis shows and whether
it supports their original judgements.
• Using Resource 7, illustrate the main points:
> sentence openers shift from a focus on humans,
to one on abstractions, including cause and
contingency
> the ideas flow better in the third version since
it logically develops the explanation of the legacy
and its consequences: sentence openers typically
refer back to a previous idea and develop it
further, focusing on cause and contingency
> these shifts in language choices, shift the versions
toward the written-end of the continuum.
• Model and jointly construct taking notes on
a series of related events and asking questions:
> Why did this happen? What was the cause/
reason for this? What happened because
of this? What did it enable/allow/lead to?
> What conditions led to this? What was this
contingent on?
> What would have happened without this/
without these conditions?
• Model and jointly construct putting these ideas
into a paragraph with a focus on orienting to cause
and contingency.
• Provide groups with another spoken-like paragraph.
You could dierentiate by giving some groups a
paragraph without cause and contingency (harder)
and others a paragraph with cause and contingency
at the end of the clause (easier). Students rework it
to improve flow and shift up the register continuum.
Groups share and compare their reworked
paragraphs, explaining and justifying their changes.
• Students work in pairs to generate notes for a
paragraph, asking each other questions such as
those above, and then in pairs or individually write
the paragraph. Students share their paragraph with
another pair and discuss choices and suggested
improvements.
16 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES
LEVELS 1012 LEAPING TO LEVELS 1314
LEVELS 10–12 LEAPING TO LEVELS 13–14
Learning sequence Language in focus Genres
12. Strategic orientations
and text organisation
• text and paragraph openers as
orientations
• text organisation and ecient
orientations using nominalisation
• manipulation of text connectives
and alternatives
• orientation to angle (perspective),
contingency and cause
• orientation to abstraction through
passive voice and nominalisation
• expositions: arguments,
discussions
• factorial and consequential
explanations
• reviews, evaluations
12. Strategic orientations and text organisation
Text and paragraph openers as orientations
Links to other genres and curriculum areas
The activities in this sequence could be adapted for use in most curriculum areas to teach the structure of:
• factorial explanations, eg factors contributed to an event, such as WW1 or a phenomenon such as climate
change or unemployment
• consequential explanations, eg consequences of an event or phenomenon, such as European settlement
of Australia, climate change, regular exercise
• evaluative texts, eg reviews/evaluations that evaluate features or components of a product, process,
performance, artwork or literary text.
Engage
• Provide students with only the introduction of a model text that uses text connectives and topic sentences
to structure the text, eg Resource 8: Discussion/argument: Should children play computer games?
• Read the introduction and then, in small groups, students use evidence to discuss:
> what genre it is
> what they expect it to contain and do.
Resource 8 has been analysed and annotated to show a variety of cohesive devices working across the text,
which could also be focused on as revision and/or taken up in sequences to follow.
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Facilitate whole class sharing to confirm that, from reading only the introductory paragraph, they can predict
that the text:
> is a discussion genre, looking at 2 sides of an issue (signalled by words such as: debate, benefits and risks;
those who are against; whereas, those who are for)
> will elaborate on the benefits and concerns in a series of body (argument) paragraphs, before coming
to a conclusion (which side it falls on) and/or a recommendation
> in elaborating on the benefits: we expect to hear about leisure time with friends and the development
of skills and attributes; elaborating the risks: we expect to hear about the use of time and money and
exposure to violence.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES | 17
• Provide the remainder of the text, cut into
paragraphs for students to reconstruct, using
language in the text to justify decisions, eg the order
in which the arguments were previewed and/or
text connectives or alternatives that structure the
text (Furthermore, On the other hand, Some of
the greatest positives, In support of the parents’
concerns).
• Students look for other words that signal the text
is a discussion and which side is being dealt with.
Text organisation and ecient
orientation using nominalisation
Engage
• Display a discussion topic pertaining to a curriculum
area for which you have already built students’
field knowledge, eg ‘Should mining be continued
in SA?’ The topic should consider various views,
eg environmental, economic, Aboriginal and local/
social perspectives.
• Each student is given 8 post-it-notes on which they
write words or phrases to represent 3 to 4 reasons
for and 3 to 4 reasons against, each reason on
a separate post-it-note. They should consider
various viewpoints, eg what others might argue.
• In small groups, students share ideas and group-
related ideas, to end up with 3 to 5 groups for
and 3 to 5 against. (If students need further help,
scaold using the arguments around school
uniform in 10. Sentence openers and text
connectives for structure and orientation.)
• For each group of ideas, students need to find
a ‘heading’ word or phrase that encapsulates
the point: this will likely be an abstract noun
or nominalisation.
Explicitly teach: I do, we do, you do
• Explain that we can use these headings words/
phrases to succinctly create:
> a text opener (introduction) that previews the
overarching ideas
> paragraph openers (topic sentences) that clearly
preview the paragraphs.
• Refer students to the introduction of Resource 8
and identify nominalisations used to preview the
arguments.
• Discuss the eects of previewing ideas in the
introduction using more ‘spoken-like’, denominalised
forms: it becomes long and rambling.
Without
nominalisations:
spoken-like
With nominalisations:
written-like
People worry that
players spend too
much time and money
playing the games and
that some of the games
are too violent and it’s
not good for players
to be exposed to that.
Against: concerns about
the use of time and
money and exposure
to violence.
• Model/jointly construct an introduction to the
discussion topic, using the encapsulating nouns/
phrases, eg social benefits, skill development,
exposure to violence, health problems.
• Students revisit Resource 8 and locate where the
previewed ideas from the introduction are taken
up in the following paragraphs, using arrows (or
colour-coding) to show connections.
• Paragraph 4 begins with a broader topic of ‘health
and habits’, which allows the author to deal with
the previewed issues of time, money and violence,
before extending the idea to physical health
problems in paragraph 5.
• Discuss why an author might do this: what is the
eect? eg avoids being too formulaic in taking up
previewed ideas; it is dicult to preview everything
in a discussion, especially if you are going to have
more than 2 arguments for each side.
• Point out that the text is well organised and
orients the reader well through the introduction
and paragraph openers using alternatives beyond
Firstly, Secondly, etc.
• Explain that we can use an understanding of the
noun group to create paragraph openers that
organise the text in this way. Display a blank
chart to create topic sentences for arguments/
discussions (see chart example on page 18).
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
18 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES
Using noun groups to build topic sentences
14
1 2 3 4 5
Sequences the paragraphs Describes the
importance/
value
Classifies
what kind/
type
The focus noun (thing)
– provides the angle
on the topic
Qualifier links to the
topic
Pointer Numerative
a
the
one (of the)
additional
another
subsequent
last, final
greatest
major
significant
critical
essential
crucial
physical
emotional
economic
good things – pros
advantage
benefit
gain
value
reason/argument (for)
positive outcome
bad things – cons
risk
problem
(negative) impact
argument (against)
disadvantage
cost
drawback
downside
• of playing computer
games
• aorded by gaming
• from being a player
• arising from playing
computer games
• resulting from
computer games
• Begin with column 4 to explain that:
> a discussion text is organised around the ‘good things’ and ‘bad things’ of each side. We talk about a topic
like this informally, but when we formally discuss it—orally or in writing—we need to shift from Tier 1
(everyday language) to Tier 2 (high-utility academic language used across topics and across disciplines),
often using abstract nouns. Generate words such as those in the focus noun column above.
Examples of Tier 2 abstract nouns used to organise how a topic is dealt with in other genres:
• cause: factor, reason, trigger, catalyst, impetus
• effect: result, outcome, impact, consequence
• part: element, feature, aspect, component
• technique: strategy, device.
• Work through columns 1 to 3 in sequence and then column 5 with students, pointing out the attributes
of each of the columns in relation to the abstract nouns that provide the angle on the topic.
> In front of this noun, we can indicate where we are in the sequence of arguments, using pointers and/or
numeratives (column 1). These are the sequencers. Invite examples suitable to the chosen topic.
> After the sequencer, we can describe the importance or ‘value’ (column 2). Add words to that column,
pointing out that some of these are more or less appropriate according to the topic and subject area.
Discuss which ones might not be appropriate for the context of your given focus genre/assessment task.
> For some contexts/topics we may be able to add a classifier (column 3). Add examples, stopping to reflect
on which ones might be appropriate for your topic.
> After the focus noun (column 4) we can add a qualifier that links to the topic (column 5). Add examples.
> Once we have created our expanded noun group, we can simply add a relating process (is/are) and then
add our heading/encapsulating noun/noun group or a synonymous noun group, and expand around that
if we choose to (social benefits, leisure time with friends, social benefits of spending time with friends).
See the first 2 examples below:
Examples creating variety in structure
1. Some of the greatest positives of playing computer games are the social benefits.
2. A further benefit that comes with playing computer games is the development of skills and attributes.
3. The development of skills and personal attributes is a further benefit aorded by playing computer games.
4.
In addition
, playing computer games leads to increased development of skills and personal attributes.
14
See also Nouns and noun groups 15 ‘Nominalisation: encapsulating speech, thought and key threads‘.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES | 19
• Model/jointly construct topic sentences using the ‘Using noun groups to build topic sentences’ chart and
‘headings/encapsulating noun groups’ as in the examples on page 18.
• Point out that:
> topic sentences like this can also be reversed to create variety of structure. Once we establish a pattern,
we often play with it in paragraph 3 or 4 (see example 3).
> we can also choose to use a text connective, but this then requires a ‘causing’ process to connect the
point with the question/topic (see example 4).
• In pairs, students construct topic sentences using their headings and the ‘Using noun groups to build topic
sentences’ chart, experimenting with manipulating the order of the sentence and/or using text connectives
for eect.
Manipulation of text connectives
Engage
• Revise the role of text connectives to make explicit the logical connections between ideas within a paragraph,
highlighting them in texts, or inserting them in cloze activities.
• Point out that, while text connectives are typically placed at the beginning of a sentence, they can be shifted
further into the sentence:
Therefore, the government must take immediate action. The government, therefore,
must take immediate action. The government must,
therefore
, take immediate action.
• Discuss the eects of these shifts and why an author would choose a particular option, drawing out that
it depends what they want to orient the reader to and what might support the flow of the text.
Resource 8 has an example of a text connective moved further into the sentence, so the reader is oriented
to contingency: Without appropriate supervision and limits,
however, …
Orienting to angle, contingency and cause
15
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Use a model discussion text that considers the topic from the point of view of various stakeholders, such as
Resource 8. Jointly identify the various groups represented, noting whether they are for or against the topic
and put findings in a table in order to map the dierent points of view in a text, eg:
For Against
Whose view? What are they saying? Whose view? What are they saying?
Those who are
for the games
talk of the benefits of leisure
time with friends and the
development of coordination
skills and attributes such
as concentration and
perseverance
Those who are
against the games
cite concerns about the use of
time and money and exposure
to violence
According to the
players,
In their opinion,
Some young
players
• the most favourable aspect
is enjoying time with their
friends
• it is a safe leisure activity
• feel that they are learning
to be more responsible
For parents of
computer game-
playing children,
They
The parents
They
• there are concerns about their
children’s health and the habits
they are forming
• fear that the children spend
a great deal of their time and
money on these games to
the point of an unhealthy
addiction
• worry that their children are
missing out on the benefits of
physical exercise and fresh air
• are anxious about the level
of violence
15
See also Circumstances 9 ‘Role and angle to add perspective’; and Verbs and verb groups 20 ‘Saying
and mental processes to cite and attribute to sources’.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
20 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES
• Students examine the model text and add further voices and points of view to the table above.
• Drawing on the evidence in the table, students discuss whether the issue has been considered in a balanced
or biased way. For example comments may include:
> both sides look at a group of people closely involved: players vs parents
> both sides include some experts and some research/evidence
> the parents have a lot of concerns but the players mainly talk about having fun.
• Have students focus on where the various groups are located in the sentence, drawing attention to the fact
that they are typically at the beginning of the sentence, or at least part of the sentence opener.
• Discuss why an author would choose to do this, drawing out that the reader is then oriented to whose
views/arguments are presented.
• Students experiment with removing whose perspective it is or placing it at the end to the sentence and
discuss the eect.
• Model and jointly analyse/classify the language resources used to include the various perspectives. These
could be colour-coded to represent stakeholders perspectives. Generate other examples to create a class chart:
Circumstances of angle (me) Circumstances of angle
(someone else)
Quoting/attributing to other
authorities
From personal viewpoint
According to my view
As I see it
As I understand it
From my viewpoint
In my opinion
To my way of thinking
Attributing view to others
According to
As … see it
From the perspective of
From the standpoint of
In the view of
In X’s opinion
Others
Authorities on the subject claim that
Feedback from X highlights that
Experts in the field believe that
Most people are of the opinion that
Most students feel that
Public opinion suggests that
Research shows that
• Students continue to add examples as they come across them in other texts.
• Students identify circumstances in Resource 8 and categorise, eg:
Text extract with other circumstances bolded Type of circumstance
In support of the parents’ concerns, a number of paediatricians and
chiropractors state that, due to an increased sedentary lifestyle,
with hours spent in front of a screen, they are seeing an increase in
children with physical problems, particularly related to neck, back and
eyes. Additionally, despite the positive claims of the players, some
child psychologists report evidence that children who spend many
hours playing computer games have diculties interacting socially.
It is apparent that this is a complex issue, with evidence falling on
both sides. In moderation and with appropriate content, gaming can
be beneficial. Without appropriate supervision and limits, however,
playing these games can be harmful.
angle
cause
contingency: condition
contingency: concession
contingency: condition
contingency: condition
• In small groups, students remove the circumstances, read the extract and discuss the impact: What has
been lost? What eect does this have for the reader? eg supporting evidence is lost (cause and contingency:
condition); links to previous arguments are lost so arguments no longer pitted against one another and up
to reader to connect and decide; the conditions under which statements are true is lost, creating broad,
sweeping statements and again losing connection to evidence presented.
• In pairs, students rearrange sentences so that cause and contingency are at the end of the sentence and
again discuss the impact, eg In support of the parents’ concerns, a number of paediatricians and chiropractors
state that they are seeing an increase in children with physical problems, particularly related to neck, back
and eyes due to an increased sedentary lifestyle, with hours spent in front of a screen. Additionally, some
child psychologists report evidence that children who spend many hours playing computer games have
diculties interacting socially, despite the positive claims of the players.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES | 21
• As a class, discuss findings: there is no longer a focus on the circumstances, they lose their importance and
potency. The focus is more on the people and not on more abstract elements such as cause. The noun groups
in most of these circumstances are built around a nominalisation: lifestyle, claims, moderation, supervision,
limits, orienting to an abstraction rather than people.
16
Orientation to abstraction through passive voice and nominalisation
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Provide students with 3 versions of a text such as in Resource 9: Register continuum.
• Students read the texts and, in small groups, place versions on the register continuum.
• Groups report back and justify their placements according to language patterns in the texts with specific
examples.
• Ensure students move beyond vague descriptions, such as more spoken-like or informal: direct them
to examine:
> sentence (and clause) openers – the part before the verb group
> nominalisations in each text, comparing number and place in the clause
> whether the text is in active or passive voice (does the ‘doer’ precede the verb?)
Register continuum
Text 1 – active voice Text 2 – passive voice Text 3 – nominalisations
sentence openers often short and
mostly orient to people
sentence openers both short and
longer and mainly shift focus/
orientation away from people
and to abstract ideas
orientations are much longer
as orients to angle, cause and
contingency (with abstract ideas
in these) and then to people or
abstract ideas
text connectives are everyday
spoken-like (Also, But, So)
text connectives are common
written examples: In addition,
However, Therefore
text connectives are less common
written examples: Additionally
(however – moved further into
sentence), Consequently
4 subordinate clauses as clause
openers (because, even though
and 2 x if)
3 subordinate clauses as clause
openers (cause: because – now
expressed through verb: caused)
no subordinate clauses as
nominalisation means ideas are
now packaged in circumstances
4 nominalisations: health, activity
and 2 x gaming – gaming used
twice as a clause opener
14 nominalisations: health,
concern, increase, activity, studies,
diculties, limits, amount and
2 x level, violence and gaming –
many used as clause or sentence
openers
16 nominalisations: support,
concerns, lifestyle, increase,
claims, evidence, diculties,
moderation, gaming, content,
supervision, limits, restrictions,
use, exposure, violence – at
least one used in every opener
162 words 166 words 115 words – text is shorter and
more densely packed
• Students annotate text to create a resource, such as the table of the register continuum above.
• Model shifting sentences along the register continuum, eg use nominalisations to change subordinate clause
to circumstance.
• Use ‘think alouds’ to show steps involved.
16
See related teaching and learning activities in the Circumstances 9 ‘Role and angle to add perspective’; 10 ‘Compacted details
of cause and eect’; and 11 ‘Compacted details of cause and contingency’.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
22 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES
Subordinate clauses and nominalisations
17
Subordinate clause with element to be nominalised bolded Nominalisation (noun group)
Even though logging provides jobs, logging should be stopped. provision of jobs
Although people fear we will become a nanny state, children must be
protected.
fear, threat, the feared threat
Because logging offers more jobs for the area, approval was granted for
the logging company to commence operation.
increased local employment
opportunities
Since they are motivated to find and keep part-time jobs to earn money
to spend on computer games, young players feel they are developing
greater responsibility.
motivation
If the sea levels continue to rise, many islanders will become displaced
persons.
continuation of the rise in sea
levels
Unless the government acts immediately, the damage will be irreversible. immediate government action
• In a sentence using a subordinate clause as sentence opener, identify what can be nominalised and form
possible nominalisations as in the table above.
• From a list of prepositions (see Circumstances: Resource 1), choose one with the same meaning as the
subordinating conjunction. You may like to create an anchor chart such as the one below:
Conjunction Prepositions
Even though Despite
Although In spite of
Because Due to
Since As a result of
If In the case of
Unless Without
• Repackage information from the subordinate clause into a prepositional phrase – the preposition followed
by a noun group built around the nominalisation, as demonstrated below:
Circumstances of contingency, cause and condition, using nominalisations
Despite the provision of jobs, logging should be stopped.
In spite of the fear of becoming a nanny state, children must be protected.
In spite of the feared threat of becoming a nanny state, children must be protected.
Due to increased local employment opportunities, approval was granted for the logging company to
commence operation.
As a result of their motivation to secure part-time employment to fund their gaming, young players feel
they are developing greater responsibility.
In the case of a continuation in rising sea levels, many islanders will become displaced persons.
Without the government’s immediate action, the damage will be irreversible.
17
See also Circumstances 11 ‘Compacted details of cause and contingency’ for more examples of shifting from subordinate clauses
to circumstances.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES | 23
Resource 1: Pronoun chart
Pronouns referring to people: personal pronouns
First person Second person Third person
Female Male
Subject: singular I thanked Grandma you thanked
Grandma
she thanked
Grandma
he thanked
Grandma
plural we thanked
Grandma
you thanked
Grandma
they thanked Grandma
Object: singular Grandma thanked
me
Grandma thanked
you
Grandma thanked
her
Grandma thanked
him
plural Grandma thanked
us
Grandma thanked
you
Grandma thanked them
Possessive: singular my Grandma your Grandma her Grandma, the
cat is hers
his Grandma, the
cat is his
plural our Grandma your Grandma their Grandma, the cat is theirs
Pronouns referring to things: impersonal pronouns
Singular Plural
Subject it jumps over the fence they jump over the fence
Object the dog jumps over it the dog jumps over them
Possessive the dog wags its tail the dogs wag their tails
that food is theirs
Note: Possessive pronouns have no apostrophe. It’s = it is.
Pronouns pointing to people or things: demonstratives
Singular Plural
Close/near this these
Distant/far that those
Accepted use of ‘singular they’
Because there is no singular gender-neutral pronoun in Standard Australian English, ’they’ has become accepted
usage in some instances. It is acceptable to use ‘they’ for either a singular male or a female, rather than he/she,
which is usually awkward and unnecessary. For instance, using ’they’ to refer back to a ‘generalised’ singular
person such as a student, eg When a student reaches this level, they … Also, there may be sensitivities around
gender identity and/or a person may elect to not identify as either masculine or feminine, and so the pronoun
‘they’ may be used instead.
24 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES
Resource 2: Changing sentence openers
Procedure Procedural recount with doer
(active)
Procedural recount without
doer (passive)
How to make compost
(How to do it)
To make compost:
• Collect some horse manure
from stables.
• Clear a patch of ground in your
garden away from the house.
• Use bricks to build three walls
of a bay to hold the composting
materials.
• Place a first layer of newspaper
to stop weeds coming up
through the compost.
• Make a second layer using
horse manure.
• Add the kitchen scraps.
• Next add the lawn cuttings.
• Repeat the layers using shredded
paper in place of the newspaper.
• When all the available materials
have been used, add a little bit
of soil to the top of the compost
heap so that fruit rats are not
attracted to the vegetables.
• Gently water the top for 15
minutes.
• As the heap reduces in size over
the next week, continue to add
layers of mulched weeds, lawn
cuttings and vegetable scraps
from the kitchen.
• After a few weeks, dig over the
compost heap with a garden
fork so that air can get into the
rotting material.
• Now, clear a second patch of
ground next to the first bay and
build a second bay to hold the
turned compost.
• After three months, sift the
oldest compost and put it on
the garden.
How I made compost
(How I did it)
First, I collected some horse
manure from the local stables and
then I cleared a patch of ground in
our garden away from the house.
I used bricks to build three walls
of a bay to hold the composting
materials.
Next, I put down a first layer of
newspaper to stop weeds coming
up through the compost and then
I made a second layer using horse
manure. After that I added the
kitchen scraps. Then I added the
lawn cuttings. I repeated the layers
using shredded paper in place of
the newspaper.
When all the available materials
had been used, I added a little bit
of soil to the top of the compost
heap so that fruit rats were not
attracted to the vegetables. I gently
watered the top of the heap for
15 minutes.
As the heap reduced in size over
the next week, I continued to add
layers of mulched weeds, lawn
cuttings and vegetable scraps from
the kitchen.
After a few weeks, I dug over the
compost heap with a garden fork
so that air could get into the
rotting material.
Then I cleared a second patch
of ground next to the first bay and
built a second bay to hold the
turned compost.
After three months, I sifted the
oldest compost and I put it on
the garden.
How compost was made
(How it was done)
To begin, some horse manure was
collected from the local stables
and then a patch of ground in the
garden away from the house was
cleared. Bricks were used to make
three walls of a bay to hold the
composting materials.
An initial layer of newspaper was
put down to stop weeds coming
up through the compost and then
a second layer was added, using
horse manure. After, kitchen scraps
and lawn cuttings were added.
The layers were repeated using
shredded paper in place of the
newspaper.
When all the available materials
had been used, a little bit of soil
was put onto the top of the compost
heap so that fruit rats were not
attracted to the vegetables. The
top of the heap was gently watered
for 15 minutes.
As the heap reduced in size over
the next week, layers of mulched
weeds, lawn cuttings and vegetable
scraps from the kitchen were
continually added.
After a few weeks, the compost
heap was dug over with a garden
fork so that air could get into the
rotting material.
At this point, a second patch of
ground next to the first bay was
cleared and a second bay to store
the turned compost was built.
After three months, the oldest
compost was sifted and put
on the garden.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES | 25
Resource 3: Sentence openers to create flow
Sentence openers focusing on doers
and disrupting the flow
Sentence openers creating flow
Recycling glass bottles
Recycling glass is an important way to use fewer
natural resources. Many people put their glass bottles
and jars into recycling bins. Have you ever wondered
what happens to that glass in the recycling process?
First, people put their used bottles and jars in a
recycling bin.
Next, a council worker comes and empties the
recycling bin into a truck and the truck driver takes
it all to the recycling centre.
Then someone has to take all the bottle tops and lids
o so that a big machine like a giant dishwasher can
wash the glass and remove any labels and dirt.
After that, a machine sorts the glass into dierent
colours before another machine crushes the glass
into small pieces.
If the glass was green or brown, the tiny pieces get
tipped into a truck and when the truck is full, another
truck driver takes it all to a bottle factory.
The factory workers mix the crushed glass with some
silica sand and then they put it into a big furnace,
where it melts and turns into a liquid.
Finally, another machine makes it into bottles.
Recycled glass is as pure and as strong as new glass,
so glass can be recycled many times.
Recycling glass bottles
Recycling glass is an important way to use fewer
natural resources. Many people put their glass bottles
and jars into recycling bins. Have you ever wondered
what happens to that glass in the recycling process?
The process begins when people put their used bottles
and jars in a recycling bin.
Next, the bottles and jars are taken by a truck to the
recycling centre.
At the centre, bottle tops and lids are removed before
the glass is washed to remove any labels and dirt.
The clean glass is then sorted into dierent colours.
Once the glass is sorted, it is crushed into small pieces.
The pieces of green or brown glass are sent by truck
to a bottle factory.
At the bottle factory, the crushed glass is mixed with
some silica sand and then put into a big furnace,
where it melts and turns into a liquid.
Finally, the hot liquid glass flows out of the furnace
and into a machine that makes it into bottles.
Recycled glass is as pure and as strong as new glass,
so glass can be recycled many times.
26 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES
Resource 4: Animals should not be kept in zoos
I strongly believe that animals should not be kept in zoos because it is wrong to take
animals from their homes in the wild. Even though some zoos might take better care of
animals than others, no zoo can make animals feel like they are at home. When animals are
in their natural habitats, we can learn more about how they live. Zoos do not really care
about animals because they just breed babies and then sell them to make money. Also,
animals become extremely angry and frustrated when they are trapped in cages.
My first reason why animals should not be kept in zoos is because zoos don’t teach us
much about animals. The animals there do not act the way they would in the forest, jungle
or ocean, where they belong. We can learn more about animals in their natural habitats by
reading books or watching wildlife programmes on TV, not by observing them trapped in
a zoo cage.
Additionally, animals should not be kept in zoos because zoos help animals breed but
then they just keep the babies or sell them. If the zookeepers really cared about stopping
animals from becoming extinct, they would set the babies free in the wild. It is a terrible
thing to keep an animal locked up in a cage for its entire life.
Finally, animals are clearly not happy in zoos. They want to be free to walk, run, fly, climb,
hunt and have families. They don’t want their babies to be taken away from them and put
in a dierent cage or sold to a dierent zoo. Animals get angry and frustrated because they
cannot leave the zoo, which makes them do strange things like pace up and down, lick
the bars of their cages, rock back and forth and bob their heads. Scientists know that these
things mean that the animals are extremely miserable, as this is not normal behaviour for
the animal.
These are the reasons why keeping animals in zoos is horrible and wrong. We can’t learn
about their natural way of living, babies are born and kept in zoos and they are cruelly
forced to live in cages for their whole life.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES | 27
Resource 5: Text connectives and logical relationships
18
Additive: adding
information
Comparative:
comparing and
contrasting
Consequential:
showing
reason: cause
and eect
Conditional:
showing
condition or
concession
Temporal:
indicating time,
sequencing
ideas
Elaborative:
clarifying or
exemplifying
above all
additionally
along with that
also
as well
apart from that
besides
equally
furthermore
in addition
indeed
moreover
on top of that
what’s more
alternatively
but
elsewhere
however
in contrast
in the same way
instead
likewise
much as
on the contrary
on the other
hand
rather than
similarly
yet
accordingly
as a
consequence
as a result
because of this
consequently
due to that
for that reason
hence
in that case
owing to that
so
thereby
therefore
thus
to this end
all the same
despite this
even so
even though
however
if only for
if not for this
in that case
in spite of this
instead
nevertheless
on condition
that
on the contrary
otherwise
still
though
after/afterwards
at the same time
at this point
before that
earlier
finally
first/firstly
(second …)
in conclusion
in the end
in short/in
summary
lastly
later
meanwhile
previously
to begin/to start
with
to conclude/
sum up
until then
as a matter of
fact
by this I mean
for example
for instance
in fact
in other words
in particular
in short
namely
or rather
that is
these include
to be more
precise
to illustrate
to put it another
way
18
Adapted from Derewianka (2011:153–154) and Humphrey, Love & Droga (2011:136).
28 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES
Resource 6: The legacies of Ancient Rome
for modern society
The Ancient Romans invented technology and building methods to adapt their
harsh environment. Many of their inventions and technologies have become
legacies to modern society. A legacy is when an object or idea is passed down
through generations.
In other words, today we are still using many of the
technologies and building methods invented by the Ancient Romans such
as reclaiming marsh areas, building roads and aqueducts.
One important legacy of the Ancient Romans is the ability to reclaim marshland.
The Romans had a lot of marshy areas and quite a lot of water. Because of this
they invented ways to drain the marsh so they could use it to build on, for example,
by inventing aqueducts which allowed for useless marshland to be reclaimed and
used for farming or to build towns. Similar methods are still used today. Without
this invention, the suburbs around West Lakes would still be marshy swamp land.
Another significant legacy passed on by the Ancient Romans is road-building
technology. The Romans built many towns and cities and the only way to
connect them was with roads. These roads were important for the army and the
people to move from one town to another quickly and easily.
Consequently
, the
Romans built roads as straight as possible. To help them do this, they adapted a
small device called a ‘groma’, which was a piece of wood with a cross cut into the
top of it. A piece of rope sat in the cross and a small stone, called a plumb was
attached to the end. The men who used these devices were the first surveyors.
They marked out the path of the road with sight markers. Although the tools of
surveyors and engineers today are more developed, they are based on many of
the same methods used by the Ancient Romans.
The invention of the aqueduct is perhaps the most important legacy left to us
by the Ancient Romans. The cities and towns spread across Ancient Rome needed
water for their houses, public baths and fountains.
However
, this water had to
be carried long distances from lakes and rivers. In order to solve this problem,
the Romans invented and built aqueducts. The first one was made from concrete
and was very large. Our modern society still uses this idea to carry water to our
houses, schools, shops, factories and oces. We use metal or plastic pipes to give
us cold and hot water in our taps. The Romans
also
did this except that their pipes
were made from lead and they had a huge boiler for hot water. Since water will
need to be carried from large natural water sources in the future, aqueducts will
definitely continue to be a legacy.
These legacies show that the Ancient Romans have contributed to our world
today. It is true that they invented technology and methods of building, which
were ahead of their time. Many of the same ideas and techniques they used to
adapt their environment and make their life easier also make our life easier today.
Comment on
openers
Text opener orients to:
• the Ancient Romans
and their inventions
• that these have
become legacies
(defining legacy)
• provides 3 examples
(coloured).
Each of these 3 examples
(coloured) is then in turn
referred to in a topic
sentence and explained.
Each topic sentence also
has an expanded noun
group as participant that
refers back to the Ancient
Romans and the idea of
legacy and links this to
the example. The initial
elements of the noun
group also work as
alternatives to ’organising
text connectives’ such as
Firstly (One), Secondly
(Another) and Finally
(the most important).
Text connectives and
this/these are also used
to connect and develop
ideas. The text connective
‘Consequently’ also
orients to cause-eect.
Circumstances and
subordinate clauses
have also been used
as sentence openers
to orient the reader
to causes and
contingencies.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES | 29
Resource 7: Moving from informal to formal language
without cause and contingency with cause and contingency
at end of clause
cause and contingency
as sentence opener
1. One important legacy of the
Ancient Romans is the ability to
reclaim marshland. The Romans
had a lot of marshy areas and quite
a lot of water. They invented ways
to drain the marsh so they could
use it to build on, for example, by
inventing aqueducts. Then they
could reclaim useless marshland
and use it for farming or to build
towns. We still use similar methods
today. The suburbs around West
Lakes were once marshy swamp
land.
2. One important legacy of the
Ancient Romans is the ability to
reclaim marshland. The Romans
had a lot of marshy areas and quite
a lot of water. They invented ways
to drain the marsh because of
this so they could use the land
to build on. Their most successful
invention was the aqueduct. Useless
marshland could be reclaimed with
their new technology, and then be
used for farming or to build towns.
Similar methods are used today.
The suburbs around West Lakes
would still be marshy swamp land
without this invention.
3. One important legacy of the
Ancient Romans is the ability to
reclaim marshland. The Romans
had a lot of marshy areas and quite
a lot of water. Because of this, they
invented ways to drain the marsh
so they could use it to build on.
The most successful invention
was the aqueduct. With their new
technology, useless marshland
could be reclaimed and used for
farming or to build towns. Similar
methods are still used today.
Without this invention, the suburbs
around West Lakes would still be
marshy swamp land.
Orienting to people and
concrete things
Beginning to shift to focus
on abstract things
Orienting to abstractions,
cause and contingency
Everyday, informal,
spoken
More specialised
and more formal
Technical, abstract,
formal, written
30 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES
Resource 8: Discussion/argument: Should children play
computer games?
Recently, there has been a great deal of debate about computer games and the
associated benefits and risks for young people. Those who are for the games talk
of the benefits of leisure time with friends and the development of coordination
skills and attributes, such as concentration and perseverance.
Whereas
, those
who are against the games cite concerns about the use of time and money,
adverse health affects and exposure to violence.
Some of the greatest positives of playing computer games are the social benefits.
According to the players, the most favourable aspect is the enjoyment they
experience: spending time with their friends. In their opinion, it is a safe leisure
activity where they can delight in the friendly rivalry of competing, trying to better
and out-do their friends.
In addition
, since they are motivated to find and keep
part-time jobs to earn money to spend on computer games, some young players
feel that they are learning to be more responsible.
Furthermore
, from the point of view of many child psychologists playing computer
games can be beneficial, as it often leads to increased development in several
key areas. Research has shown that children who regularly play computer games
have better hand-eye coordination and reflex responses compared to children
who never or rarely play these games. The regular players also appear to perform
better under pressure and show higher levels of concentration and perseverance.
As a result
, they demonstrate increased resilience.
On the other hand
, for parents of computer game-playing children, there are
concerns about their children’s health and the habits they are forming. They fear
that their children spend a great deal of their time and money on these games to
the point of an unhealthy addiction. The parents also worry that their children are
missing out on the benefits of physical exercise and fresh air.
Likewise
, they are
anxious about the level of violence in many of the games and the negative impact
this may have.
In support of the parents’ concerns, a number of paediatricians and chiropractors
state that, due to an increased sedentary lifestyle, with hours spent in front of a
screen, they are seeing an increase in children with physical problems, particularly
related to neck, back and eyes.
Additionally
, despite the positive claims of the
players, some child psychologists report evidence that children who spend many
hours playing computer games have diculties interacting socially.
It is apparent that this is a complex issue, with evidence falling on both sides.
In moderation and with appropriate content, gaming can be beneficial. Without
appropriate supervision and limits,
however, playing these games can be harmful.
It appears to be yet another case where too much of a good thing is not a good
thing.
Consequently
, restrictions should be put in place to address the issues of
excessive use of time and money and exposure to violence.
Notes re analysis
Text opener previews
arguments for and
against in expanded
noun groups built
around nominalisations.
Each topic sentence
also has an expanded
noun group that refers
back to a benefit or
concern and links to the
specific example. Topic
sentences begin by
signalling which side
of the debate we will
read about using, eg:
• initial element of a
noun group: Some of
the greatest positives
• an organising
text connective:
Furthermore; On the
other hand
• a circumstance of
angle: In support of
the parents’ concerns.
Text connectives are
used within paragraphs
to connect and develop
ideas with one example of
manipulating orientation
to the message. Without
appropriate supervision
and limits,
however, …
Circumstances and
subordinate clauses
used as sentence openers
to orient the reader to:
• angle, eg According
to players,
• cause: since they are
motivated …, due to
an increased …
• contingency, eg with
hours spent …, despite
the positive claims …,
In moderation and
with …, Without
appropriate
supervision …
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES COHESIVE DEVICES | 31
Resource 9: Register continuum
Text 1 Text 2 Text 3
Parents worry about their
children’s health. Paediatricians
and chiropractors support this
concern. They say that, because
children are less active and spend
hours in front of a screen, they
are seeing more children with
problems with their necks, backs
and eyes.
Also, even though the players and
some psychologists say that playing
computer games is a positive
social activity, the paediatricians
and chiropractors say that some
people have studied this and seen
that children who spend many
hours playing computer games
have problems interacting with
others socially.
If parents limit how much time
children play these games and
which games they play, and
governments make sure the games
aren’t too violent, then gaming
can be good.
But, if parents don’t supervise their
children and don’t limit how much
and what they play, then gaming
can be harmful.
So, parents have to restrict how
much time and money their children
spend on computer games and
governments must restrict how
violent the games are.
The health of their children is a
concern to parents. This concern
is supported by paediatricians and
chiropractors, who say that an
increase in the number of children
with neck, back and eye problems
is being caused by hours in front
of a screen.
In addition, even though playing
computer games is seen as a
positive social activity, by the
players and some psychologists,
the paediatricians and chiropractors
say that, in several studies, diculties
interacting with others socially has
been shown to be triggered by
children spending hours playing
computer games.
If the time children play these
games and which games they
play is limited by parents and the
level of violence is controlled by
governments then gaming can
be positive.
However, if children are not
supervised by parents and limits
are not set on how long or what
they play, then gaming can be
harmful.
Therefore, the amount of time and
money children spend on computer
games and the level of violence
has to restricted.
In support of the parents’ concerns,
a number of paediatricians and
chiropractors state that, due to an
increased sedentary lifestyle, with
hours spent in front of a screen,
they are seeing an increase in
children with physical problems,
particularly related to neck, back
and eyes.
Additionally, despite the positive
claims of the players some child
psychologists, report evidence that
children who spend many hours
playing computer games have
diculties interacting socially.
In moderation and with appropriate
content, gaming can be beneficial.
Without appropriate supervision
and limits, however, playing these
games can be harmful.
Consequently, restrictions should
be put in place to address the
issues of excessive use of time and
money and exposure to violence.
The Department for Education requests attribution as:
South Australian Department for Education | APRIL 2021
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP)
TARGETED STRATEGIES TO ACCELERATE SAE PROFICIENCY
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
SENTENCE STRUCTURE: INTRODUCTION 2
The clause 2
Simple sentences 2
Compound sentences 2
Complex sentences 2
Subordinating conjunctions 2
Relative pronouns 2
Non-finite verb forms 2
LEVELS 1–4 AND LEAPING TO LEVELS 5–6 3
1. Parts of a clause: simple sentences 3
Identify action processes 4
Identify who or what is doing the action 4
Identify who or what the action is done to 4
Extra details about the action 5
2. Simple sentences: add detail with circumstances 5
3. Compound sentences: join clauses with coordinating conjunctions 6
4. Complex sentences with because, so that and non-finite ‘to + verb’ 6
Focus on ‘because’ 6
Focus on ‘so that’ 7
Focus on non-finite ‘to + verb’ 7
LEVELS 5–6 LEAPING TO LEVELS 7–9 8
5. Subordinating conjunctions: cause, time or condition 8
Subordinating conjunctions of cause and time 8
Subordinating conjunctions of condition 9
6. Relative pronouns: which and where 10
LEVELS 7–9 LEAPING TO LEVELS 10–12 12
7. Less common subordinating conjunctions 12
8. Relative pronouns: which, where, who, whose and whom 13
Revising ‘which’ and ‘where’ 13
Focus on ‘who’, ‘whose’ and ‘whom’ 14
9. Non-finite clauses: -ing and -ed verb forms 16
LEVELS 10–12 LEAPING TO LEVELS 13–14 20
10. Complex sentences crafted for precision and eect 20
11. Densely packed, sophisticated simple sentences 22
Resource 1: Conjunction chart 26
Resource 2: Review of digital graphic novel The Wormworld Saga 27
Resource 3: Qin Shi Huang, the first Emperor of China 28
Resource 4: Model text: PE issues analysis 29
Resource 5: Shifting from active to passive voice and nominalisation 30
2 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE
SENTENCE STRUCTURE: INTRODUCTION
The clause
Developing sentence structure begins with understanding the clause and its components:
Functional group name Meaning/function Form – class of word/s typically used
a central process what’s going on? typically expressed by a verb/verb group
one or more participants who or what is involved? typically expressed by a noun/noun group
or adjective/adjective group
(optional) extra details of the
circumstances surrounding
the process
when, where, how, why did
it happen?
typically expressed by an adverb/adverbial
group, prepositional phrase (can be expressed
by a noun group)
Simple sentences
Grammatically simple sentences contain only one central verb group (process) and, therefore, only one clause.
Simple sentences can be basic, developed or sophisticated, eg:
• Some animals could die.
• Last year, thousands of poor animals were treated badly in zoos around the world.
• Recent studies of animals in captivity have led to an appeal for an immediate closure of substandard zoos.
Compound sentences
These have 2 or more main (independent) clauses of equal or coordinated status, usually joined by a coordinating
conjunction. Compound sentences can also be basic, extended or sophisticated as shown in the following
examples, where the clauses are separated by 2 forward slashes:
• Kim is an actor, // Pat is a teacher, // and Sam is an architect.
• People can become obsessed by games // and spend far too much time and money.
• In many countries around the world, zoos lack sucient funding // and, as a consequence, animals suffer
in terrible, cramped areas.
Complex sentences
These are grammatically complex, having a main clause and at least one subordinate (dependent) clause.
The examples provided show the shift from basic through developed to sophisticated, and the dierent
grammatical resources used. The subordinate clauses in the examples shown on this page are italicised.
Subordinating conjunctions
• I took my umbrella because it was raining.
• If an animal is in a good zoo, then it will have a good life since there are no hunters.
Relative pronouns
• My idea of a perfect zoo is one similar to the Dubbo Zoo, where animals are able to run free.
• My brother, who recently passed away, loved that piece of music.
Non-finite verb forms
• To prevent extinction, breeding programs have been implemented.
• Bidding farewell to the remains of my home, I trudged away in search of safety.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE | 3
LEVELS 14 AND LEAPING TO LEVELS 56
LEVELS 1–4
Learning sequence Language in focus Genres
1. Parts of a clause: simple
sentences
• parts of a clause:
> action
> who or what is doing the action?
> who or what is the action done to?
> extra details (where and who with)
• descriptive statements
2. Simple sentences: add
detail with circumstances
• extra details: circumstances of place,
time and/or accompaniment
• recounts
LEAPING TO LEVELS 5–6
3. Compound sentences:
join clauses with coordinating
conjunctions
• coordinating conjunctions and, but
and so
• narratives
4. Complex sentences with
because, so that and non-
finite ‘to + verb’
• subordinating conjunctions because
and so that
• non-finite ‘to + verb’
• recounts
Suggested mentor texts
Books (bolding indicates that the sequence is based around this text) Learning sequence
Lester A (1985) Clive Eats Alligators, Lothian Children’s Books 1
Carle E (1969) The Very Hungry Caterpillar, Penguin Putnam 1
1. Parts of a clause: simple sentences
Metalanguage
• At these lower levels, it is not necessary for students to know and use the metalanguage of clause, participant,
process and circumstance. The aim is to have them understand the meaning and patterns in a clause by
using the functional questions and the colours and/or shapes:
> green and/or circles/ovals for processes – green for go, and circles move easily, so they show ‘action’
and can be rolled back and forth along a timeline to explore tense
> red and/or rectangles for participants – red for stop, and rectangles with flat bottoms help represent
a static thing
> blue and/or clouds for circumstances – show the environment/details surrounding the process.
• Make up 3 posters, as follows:
> What’s happening? – Processes
doing, saying, thinking, feeling, having, being
This job is done by verbs and verb groups.
> Who or what is involved? – Participants
Who or what is doing, saying, thinking, feeling, having, being?
Who or what is being done to, receiving, etc?
This job is usually done by nouns, noun groups, including pronouns, adjectives and adjectival groups.
> Is there any other detail about the process? – Circumstances
When? Where? How? Why? As what? In whose view?
This job is usually done by adverbs or prepositional phrases. It can also be done by noun groups.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
4 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Engage
Read a text written in simple sentences.
You can use several texts to focus on action before
moving to who/what is involved and then to
circumstances. Alternatively you could introduce
all the elements in one text.
Identify action processes
Action processes are the most concrete and everyday:
they are easier for students to make links to first
languages (L1s). Initially, avoid examples with relating
processes (eg Whales are big; Kangaroos have
pouches) since many languages do not use them.
2
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Display selected sentences from the text.
• Use functional questions to identify the process
(what is happening?) and highlight or circle these
in green. For example:
Animals in Motion
3
> Read a sentence and ask, ‘What do these
animals do?’
– Orangutans swing.
– Whales breach.
– Kangaroos hop.
Weather
4
> Read a sentence and ask, ‘What happens?’
‘What’s the action?’
– Lightning flashes in the sky.
– Rain falls on the ground.
– Wind blows through the grass.
Clive Eats Alligators (Playing page)
> Read a sentence and ask, ‘What is he or she doing?’
– Clive is painting.
– Celeste is dressing up.
– Ernie makes a dinosaur.
– Nicky builds a tree-house.
– Rosie swings on the swing.
– Tessa digs in the sandpit.
– But Frank plays chess with Roger.
5
Identify who or what is doing
the action
Once you have identified the process, use it to ask:
‘Who or what is doing the action?’ Highlight or box
answer in red.
Animals in Motion
• Ask: ‘What swing/breach/hop?’
> Orangutans swing.
> Whales breach.
> Kangaroos hop.
Weather
• Ask: ‘What flashes/falls/blows?’
> Lightning flashes in the sky.
> Rain falls on the ground.
> Wind blows through the grass.
Clive Eats Alligators (Playing page)
• Ask: ‘Who is painting/is dressing up/makes/builds/
swings/digs/plays?’
> Clive is painting.
> Celeste is dressing up.
> Ernie makes a dinosaur.
> Nicky builds a tree-house.
> Rosie swings on the swing.
> Tessa digs in the sandpit.
> But Frank plays chess with Roger.
Identify who or what the action
is done to
• Explain that some clauses/sentences have 2
participants. One ‘who or what’ doing the action and
another ‘who or what’ the action is being done to.
• Direct students to sentences that have not yet been
fully colour-coded and ask ‘who or what’ after the
process to see if there is another ‘who or what’
involved in the action. If yes, highlight the answer red.
Clive Eats Alligators (Playing page)
> Ask:
– ‘Ernie makes what?’ or ‘What does Ernie
make?’ Ernie makes a dinosaur.
6
– ‘Nicky builds what?’ or ‘What does Nicky
build?’ Nicky builds a tree-house.
> Ask: ‘Rosie swings what?’ or ‘What does Rosie
swing?’ Rosie swings on the swing. (no 2nd
participant/no ‘done to’)
1
The 3 texts used in this learning sequence gradually increase in complexity. The 6 books in Alison Lester’s collection are mostly
a series of simple sentences. The Very Hungry Caterpillar, while more complex, is useful for circumstances of time and teaching
days of the week.
2
See Verbs and verb groups 5 ‘Action and relating processes’.
3
Billings HW (2015) Animals in Motion, Unite for Literacy, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Billings2015 (accessed November 2020)
4
Francis A (2013) Weather, United for Literacy, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Francis2013 (accessed November 2020)
5
‘But’ is used here as a text connective, not as a conjunction to join 2 clauses.
6
Be sure to highlight that ‘a’ is part of the group when answering the question.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE | 5
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
> Point out that our sentences can have dierent
colour patterns and we don’t always have or
need a second who or what.
Extra details about the action
Revisit sentences to identify and colour-code
remaining parts of the clause.
Weather – circumstances: where?
• Use the process to ask ‘Where?’, eg Where does
it flash/fall/blow? Highlight in blue.
> Lightning flashes in the sky.
> Rain falls on the ground.
> Wind blows through the grass.
Clive Eats Alligators – circumstances: where? and
who/what with?
• Ask:
> ‘Where does Rosie swing?’ Rosie swings on the
swing.
> ‘Where does Tessa dig?’ Tessa digs in the sandpit.
> ‘Who(m) does Frank play chess with?’ But Frank
plays chess with Roger.
Original text in Clive Eats Alligators used relating
processes to describe where Rosie and Tessa are
(‘Rosie is on the swing.’ and ‘Tessa is in the sandpit.’)
rather than tell what they do.
2. Simple sentences: add
detail with circumstances
You can generate all the charts for dierent kinds
of circumstances first, or focus on one and have
students practice using that to create a clause/
sentence before moving on to the next.
• Generate lists of action processes and create
anchor charts relevant to a particular topic/s, eg
what we do on the weekend, at recess/lunch;
ways that we/animals move; classroom routines,
art, sport; etc. Use the lists to create a set of ‘green’
action cards.
• Develop with the students an anchor chart:
‘Circumstances of time – when?’ and list common
examples, eg on the weekend, on Sunday, at recess,
at lunchtime, today, this morning, this afternoon,
after lunch, last night, at 3 o’clock.
• Students add examples to personal bilingual glossary.
• Students recount what they did during recess/
lunch. Explain that when we recount an event we
usually begin with a circumstance of time, telling
the reader/listener when this happened. Display
the phrase ‘At recess/lunchtime’.
• Students turn and talk. Starting with the time
phrase, they share one thing they did.
• Students tell the whole group what their
partner did.
• Record these sentences and use them to identify
the action and the doer, etc. Create regular
routines, where students share both orally and in
writing one thing they did on the weekend, after
school or at school, choosing an appropriate
circumstance of time to begin.
• Develop an anchor chart: ‘Circumstances of place
– where?’ and list common examples for everyday
events and/or school topics. For example: to the
shops; to the temple/mosque/church; at the
shops; in the park; at home; my friend’s house;
at the door; inside; outside; in the garden; on the
oval; in the trees; in the sea; in the jungle; in the
bush; on the ground.
• Extend activities/routines from above adding
‘where’ the action was done.
• Develop an anchor chart: ‘Circumstances of
accompaniment’ and list common examples,
eg with mummy and daddy, with my dog, with
class 3G, with the Principal, with all the little
children.
LEAP Levels do not include accompaniment because
they are not useful indicators of development in
language proficiency. However, it is still beneficial to
teach students to add this detail.
• Extend activities/routines from above, adding ‘with
whom’ the action was done.
• Provide students with visual prompt cards for:
When? Where? Who with? In pairs or small groups,
students share what they did, while others listen for
these details. If a detail is not included, a listener
should ask for the missing detail, eg When did you
go? Who did you go with? Where did you play?
• Engage students in various games/activities where
they build sentences using the various parts of a
clause and colour-code these. Students can be
in L1 groups and use L1 and English to complete
the task.
Teachers have used red, green and blue Unifix cubes
to have students analyse the parts of their own or
others’ sentences and to compare the patterns and
encourage them to add to and build sentences. Others
have used dice, with 2 green sides asking what is
happening; 2 red asking ‘who or what’; and 2 blue
asking for extra details. Children throw the dice and
select an appropriate card to build a simple sentence.
6 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE
3. Compound sentences:
join clauses with coordinating
conjunctions
Engage
• Display and read a familiar story rewritten so that
only simple sentences are used, eg Once upon a
time, there was a little girl. Her name was Goldilocks.
She had golden hair. One day, Goldilocks was
walking in the forest. She saw a house. It was the
three bear’s house. Goldilocks knocked on the
door. Nobody came. She opened the door. She
went inside. Nobody was there. She saw three
bowls on the table. She was hungry. She … etc.
• Discuss how the story sounds, eliciting responses
such as: sounds boring; it’s jerky; like a list; it’s lots
of short sentences with only little bits of information
in each.
• Point out that stories and our writing sound more
interesting and flow better if we use dierent kinds
of sentences – some short and simple, and some
longer sentences with more than one idea.
• Explain that simple sentences have one idea or one
message but compound sentences link 2 ideas in
one sentence using a coordinating conjunction.
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
You may begin with and only, or introduce and, but,
so, making their meanings explicit.
Dierent connections made by coordinating
conjunctions:
• and connects 2 similar ideas
• but connects 2 dierent ideas
• so connects ideas, telling us that one thing
happened because of the other.
• Model with the first 3 sentences, ‘thinking aloud’
to see which sentence is best on its own and which
could be joined, eg Once upon a time, there was
a little girl. Her name was Goldilocks and she had
golden hair.
• Read original and new comparing eect and point
out the changes to punctuation.
• Jointly reconstruct the next few sentences,
experimenting and discussing which ones to join,
listening for the eect and making changes to
punctuation, eg One day, Goldilocks was walking
in the forest and she saw a house. It was the three
bear’s house.
• Students jointly reconstruct remainder of the
text with a partner, in small groups or with you,
experimenting and discussing which ideas to join,
listening for the eect and making changes to
punctuation.
• Make up strips of card for students with clauses
(from a familiar text/topic) and with coordinating
conjunctions and or and then. Repeat/extend
with but and so. You could also make up sentence
strips and conjunctions using the Goldilocks story.
7
I went to the show and my sister came too.
It was 1.00pm and I ate my lunch.
I went on holiday and I went in the pool.
Sit down and then take out your books.
Peel the banana and then cut into thick slices.
I went to the show but my sister couldn’t go.
I wanted another
ride
but
I felt sick.
I didn’t have any
money
so
I couldn’t go on
another ride.
It was dark so I had to go home.
Links to punctuation
Students at these levels often use coordinating
conjunctions to join ideas in run on sentences, eg
I went to the show and I got on a ride and then I had
an ice cream but I felt sick after that so I couldn’t go
on any more rides. Model highlighting verbs groups,
checking how many between full stops. If more
than 3, find where to place a full stop and delete
the conjunction.
4. Complex sentences with
because, so that and non-finite
‘to + verb’
Focus on ‘because’
Engage
• Display familiar sentences using so. Using cards,
display familiar sentences that could be joined by
the conjunction.
• Revise that so connects ideas telling us that one
thing happened because of the other. Point out
that when we use so, the reason comes first and
then what happened.
Reason Conjunction What happened
I didn’t have
any money
so
I couldn’t go on
another ride.
7
Alternatively, Reading Australia unit teacher resource ‘The Big Book of Old Tom’ has teacher notes and activities for teaching simple
and compound sentences under the Examining section. Although written for year 2 students, older students will engage with
the text and cartoons on YouTube. Reading Australia unit available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/raOldTom (accessed November 2020);
Gross Y (2015) Old Tom Cartoons 08, ABC TV, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/OldTomCartoons (accessed November 2020).
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE | 7
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
• Remove ‘so’ and move what happened to the front
and the reason to the end.
• Students turn and talk to share a conjunction they
think could join the ideas now.
• Write the word because, displaying one letter at a
time, for them to check or revise their guess.
What happened Conjunction Reason
I couldn’t go on
another ride
because
I didn’t have
any money.
• Students jointly reconstruct other sentences.
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Draw attention to causal relationships in any
texts being read across the curriculum and
engage students in discussions about sentence
construction and conjunctions showing these
relationships.
• Model adding a reason to a simple sentence with
because to create complex sentences, eg:
> We will not go outside today because it is raining.
> We will go swimming because it is hot.
• Point out that in speech, we often use because
to answer questions in incomplete sentences, eg:
> Why were you late for class? Because he had
my ball.
• Teach and model full sentences for writing, eg:
I was late because Sam had my ball.
• With similar activities teach other ways to join
ideas giving reasons.
Focus on ‘so that’
• Make explicit that an auxiliary (can/could/won’t/
wouldn’t) is added in the clause following ‘so that’:
What we did Conjunction Reason – why?
We went to the
pool
so that
we could have
a swim.
We are going
to the shops
so that
we can buy
some food.
We ran so that
we wouldn’t
be late.
I’m eating now so that
I won’t be
hungry later.
• Discuss its meaning. For example, that we do
something to make a future event possible or to
avoid a future event.
• Point out that ‘that’ is often omitted, but can be
reinserted, eg We went to the pool so (that) we
could have a swim.
Focus on non-finite ‘to + verb’
Model joining a reason with to + verb, eg:
• We went to the pool to have a swim
• We ran to get there in time.
Identifying ‘to + verb’ as joining a new clause
To test whether the ‘to + verb’ is being used to join
a non-finite clause put the words ‘in order’ before it.
If it makes sense, then the verb is the beginning of a
non-finite clause, eg He climbed up // (in order) to
get a better view. We used column charts // (in order)
to compare our data.
Subordinating conjunctions ‘because’, ‘when’
and ‘if’
In addition to a focus on causal connections,
develop activities to join clause pairs by identifying
the relationship between the ideas and which
conjunction would best work.
8 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
LEVELS 56 LEAPING TO LEVELS 79
LEVELS 5–6 LEAPING TO LEVELS 7–9
Learning sequence Language in focus Genres
5. Subordinating
conjunctions: cause, time
or condition
• subordinating conjunctions of:
> time: when, after, until, while
> condition: if
• descriptive reports
• sequential and causal
explanations
• arguments
6. Relative pronouns: which
and where
• relative pronoun which or where
to add related ideas
8
• descriptive reports
• sequential and causal
explanations
Suggested mentor text
Book Learning sequence
Blabey A (2009) Pearl Barley and Charlie Parsley, Penguin Australia, Picture Pun
9
5
5. Subordinating conjunctions: cause, time or condition
Subordinating conjunctions of cause and time
Engage
• Read a learning area text and on a second read, stop and highlight the conjunctions.
• Create a list and classify them according to:
> the relationship between the ideas/clauses, eg adding, time, contrast, cause-eect, condition
> the way that they connect clauses:
– coordinating conjunctions connect 2 main clauses (compound)
– subordinating conjunctions connect a subordinate clause to a main clause (complex).
• Brainstorm to add to the list and create a class conjunction chart (see Resource 1: Conjunction chart). Explain
that there are several ways to form complex sentences: using a subordinating conjunction is the most common.
• Discuss that conjunctions can have more than one meaning, eg as can mean:
> time: ‘at the same time’: As the bus arrived, it started to rain.
> cause: ‘because’: As it was raining, she took an umbrella.
> time and cause, particularly in an explanation: As the warm air rises, it begins to cool.
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Select complex sentences from a teaching text, eg A Waddle of Penguins.
10
• Write individual clauses on cards; making separate subordinating conjunction cards:
Main clause
Subordinating
conjunction
Subordinate clause
penguin wings have changed into flippers so that these birds fly though the water, not the air
they waddle, hop and slide on their bellies when they are on land
penguins make their nests on the ground since they can’t fly like other birds
penguin parents feed and protect their
fluy chicks
until the little ones grow new feathers
penguins can swim in icy ocean waters because adult feathers are waterproof and warm
8
To move to Levels 7–9, it is also important that students continue to develop simple sentences, adding circumstances and
expanding noun groups.
9
See also the Reading Australia (nd) ‘Pearl Barley and Charlie Paisley’, teacher resource, Copyright Australia, available at
http://TLinSA.2.vu/raPearlBarley (accessed October 2020).
10
McKay W (2019) A Waddle of Penguins, Unite for Literacy, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/McKay2019 (accessed October 2020)
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE | 9
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
• Provide each group of 3 to 4 students with a set
of cards. Students spread them out on their table.
• Read aloud one of the clauses, eg penguins can
swim in icy ocean waters (be sure to choose one
where there is a clear choice for the connecting
clause).
• Students find a clause that is a connected idea,
eg adult feathers are waterproof and warm.
11
• Share alternatives before choosing one as a class.
Read the 2 clauses again.
• Students listen and groups share how the ideas are
connected, eg adding, time, contrast, cause-eect,
condition. Record answers on a mini whiteboard
and hold up.
• Once the class has agreed, groups identify a
conjunction card and use it to join the clauses
in this relationship and share.
• If a group has begun their sentence with a
subordinating conjunction, eg Because adult
feathers are waterproof and warm, penguins can
swim in icy waters, point out that the subordinate
clause can be placed in front of the main clause.
The conjunction goes with it. Sometimes we
call it a binding conjunction: it is bound to the
subordinate clause.
Links to punctuation and intonation
Point out that when the subordinate clause comes
in front of the main clause, we need to put a comma
between the clauses. When speaking, we use
intonation: the way we read a sentence beginning
with a subordinate clause indicates that we are
orienting/giving background information and have
not yet reached the main clause.
• Students experiment with rearranging the sentence
they made, adding commas and reading with
correct intonation.
• Students make sentences with the remaining
cards, checking that they have chosen a suitable
conjunction to express the relationship between the
ideas and experimenting with the order of clauses.
• Create cloze passages from familiar texts, deleting
the conjunctions.
• In pairs, students insert an appropriate conjunction
and annotate their choices, classifying as
coordinating or subordinating and identifying
the logical relationship between the ideas.
• Give students a simple clause related to class
topic/text, eg The performance continued, then
have them choose a subordinating conjunction
and add a subordinate clause to complete the
sentence (orally or written), eg:
The performance
continued
when
the ringmaster
returned.
because
the trapeze artist
was not seriously
hurt.
after
everyone returned
to their seats.
• Students rearrange, placing the conjunction at the
beginning, and discuss the eect.
Suggested mentor text – while and when
See the exploring section of the teacher resource for
Pearl Barley and Charlie Parsley. The first half of the
book follows a pattern: ‘While Pearl Barley ..., Charlie
Parsley ...’, to highlight the dierences between the 2
characters. The second half uses ‘when’ to emphasise
ways the characters complement and support one
another: ‘When Pearl Barley …, Charlie Parsley …’.
As, when and while and tense
These conjunctions are often used to combine simple
past and past continuous tenses. When is used when
an ongoing event (dusting) is interrupted by another
(heard a knock) or the second event finishes quickly
(Fern was holding the pig when her brother came
into the room.). While, as or just as can be used to
join 2 simultaneously ongoing events. The clause
following the conjunction is the subordinate clause
and is seen as background to the main clause.
12
Subordinating conjunctions of
condition
13
Engage
• Students choose a pet they would recommend;
list positives about it and share with a partner.
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Read Which Pet Would You Get?
14
11
There are several correct options here, eg so that, since, because.
12
See also Verbs and verb groups 10 ‘Tenses and complex relationships of time’ – ‘Dierent tenses in narratives’. Note the use of
conjunctions: when and while in complex sentences combining simple past and past continuous.
13
See also Verbs and verb groups 14 ‘Adding modals to persuade’.
14
Locke L (2010) Which Pet Would You Get?, Unite for Literacy, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Locke2010 (accessed October 2020)
10 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
• Discuss the connection between the 2 ideas in the
table below and how/why this type of sentence
would be useful in an argument.
Subordinating
conjunction
Subordinate
clause
Main clause
If
you would like
a quiet pet,
you could
get a rabbit.
you would like
a playful pet,
you could
get a puppy.
you would like
a shy pet,
you could
get a turtle.
you would like
a cuddly pet,
you could
get a cat.
• Students work with a partner to rearrange other
sentences, articulating the changes they are
making. Point out that when the ‘If’ clause comes
first, ‘then’ can be added in front of the main
clause. Change the auxiliary ‘could’ to ‘should’,
‘must’ or ‘have to’ and discuss how it strengthens
the statement.
15
• Extend activities orally. In pairs, student A states
what kind of pet they would like and B responds.
‘Well if you would like a… pet, (then) you could/
should get a…’.
• Students use the pattern to create 3 to 4 sentences
about their chosen pet and then share with a partner.
• Read A Secret Pet
16
and display a few sentences:
> If I had a pet, I would give it clean water for
drinking and a big bowl for bathing.
> If I had a pet, I would find it a warm place for
sleeping.
> If I had a pet, I would give it the right food.
• Discuss the pattern used and how/why it would be
useful in an argument.
• In small groups, students choose a secret pet and
innovate to create their own text. Students read
their text for others to guess their secret pet.
• Provide examples of how the pattern could be
changed and discuss how the changes could
aect an argument:
> If I/you had a pet cat, I/you could cuddle it.
(Positive things you could do with it.)
> If I/you had a pet dog, it could protect you.
(Positive things it could do for you.)
> If you had a pet rabbit, you would have to clean
its smelly cage. (Negative things you would have
to do.)
• Make and display an anchor chart with examples
of the various patterns.
• Students choose a pet they would like and one
they wouldn’t. Create 2 to 3 sentences for each.
6. Relative pronouns: which
and where
Revise
Discuss the pattern of sentence openers in an
explanation, in which what is introduced as new
information at the end of one sentence, becomes
the ‘given’ orienting information in the next
sentence opener.
17
Engage
• Display and read an explanation text that maintains
this pattern by often simply repeating the end of one
sentence to begin the next. The example below is
from a student’s explanation of the respiratory system:
The oxygen enters our body through the oral
cavity or the nasal cavity. In the cavities, the air
is filtered, heated and moistened by the cilia and
mucous. The air travels down the pharynx and
into the larynx. The larynx can vibrate the vocal
cords to make sounds. From the larynx, the air
travels to the trachea. The trachea is lined by the
cilia. The cilia continue to clean the air. The air
passes to the bronchi tubes. The bronchi tubes
enter the lungs. From the bronchi tubes the air
passes to the bronchiole. The bronchiole tubes
have many branches like a tree. The branches
have alveoli in them. The alveoli collect oxygen
from the air we inhale. The oxygen then travels
to the capillaries. The capillaries transport the
oxygen to the rest of the bloodstream.
• Discuss the eect of this pattern, eliciting
responses such as ‘it is too repetitive’.
• Explain that, instead of repeating the thing or place
we want to give more information about, we can
use a relative pronoun (‘which’ for a thing and ‘where’
for a place). This will relate the new information
back to the old, creating a subordinate clause to
create a second type of complex sentence. (The
first or most common type is with a subordinating
conjunction.)
Explaining the term relative pronoun
• A pronoun that is standing in place of something else.
• It relates 2 pieces of information: relates a new
piece of information back to the thing it stands
in place of.
• Point out that the relative pronoun is always right
next to the thing or place it relates back to.
15
See also Evaluative language 7 ‘Expanded vocabulary to evaluate with varied intensity’ – ‘Modality to strengthen or soften arguments’.
16
Hartman H & Ollikainen N (2013) A Secret Pet, Unite for Literacy, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Hartman2013 (accessed October 2020)
17
For an example, see Cohesive devices Resource 3: Sentence openers to create flow.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE | 11
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Model ‘thinking aloud’ steps:
> identify repeated information/or what the new information relates back to
> determine if it is a thing or place
> delete the repeated information and replace it with the appropriate relative pronoun
> replace the full stop with a comma, for example:
The oxygen enters our body through the oral cavity or the nasal cavity. In the cavities,
where the air
is filtered, heated and moistened by the cilia and mucous.
The air travels down the pharynx and into the larynx. The larynx,
which can vibrate the vocal cords
to make sounds.
• Jointly rework other sentences, with students articulating the steps.
• In pairs, students rework other sentences.
• During reading, stop and ask:
> ‘what?’ to identify what the relative pronoun ‘which’ relates back to, eg What hunt and eat them?
> ‘where?’ to identify what the relative pronoun ‘where’ relates back to, eg Where are they cleaned and sorted?
• With sentences using relative pronouns, model and have students use steps to:
> identify and circle the relative pronoun
> identify and underline what it stands in place of
> draw an arrow to connect the 2:
Penguins have to watch out for orca whales and sea lions,
which
hunt and eat them.
When the air and the water cool, they form drops of water,
which
then fall to the earth as rain.
Next, the bottles and jars are taken by a truck to the recycling centre,
where
they are cleaned and sorted.
• Students look for relative pronouns in texts they are reading. They ask themselves questions to determine
what the new information is relating back to. They follow the steps to annotate examples and add to a
class collection.
Which or that?
Either can be used to add more information about a thing. However, that is more commonly used to add an
embedded clause as a qualifier in a noun group. Which is more commonly used to add a subordinate clause.
18
Using ‘which clauses’ to link cause-eect
Demonstrate using the relative pronoun ’which’ to elaborate on an idea by adding what happens as a result:
It rains heavily for long periods in the wet season, which causes the rivers to overflow; The metal spoon heated
up, which resulted in the butter melting and the bead falling o. Reinforce that ‘which’ relates back to the
whole clause.
19
18
See Nouns and noun groups 11 ‘Embedded relative clauses to specify which people, places or things’.
19
See also Verbs and verb groups 13 ‘Relating processes: expanding choices’ – ‘Grammatical changes when using causal relating verb’.
12 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
LEVELS 79 LEAPING TO LEVELS 1012
LEVELS 7–9 LEAPING TO LEVELS 10–12
Learning sequence Language in focus Genres
7. Less common
subordinating conjunctions
• less common conjunctions of time,
cause and condition: while, until,
once, since, ever since, as, as if, like,
except for, except that
• conjunctions of concession: although,
even though, even if, though
• narratives, reviews
• consequential explanation
• biographies
8. Relative pronouns: which,
where, who, whose and
whom
• related ideas: revising which and
where and focusing on who, whose
and whom
• narratives
• biographies
• explanations, responses
• interpretations, evaluations
9. Non-finite clauses: -ing
and -ed verb forms
• elaborations using -ing and -ed
verb forms
Model texts
All learning sequences at these levels use examples taken or adapted from 3 model texts:
Resource 2: Review of digital graphic novel The Wormworld Saga
Resource 3: Qin Shi Huang, the first Emperor of China
Cohesive devices – Resource 6: The legacies of Ancient Rome for modern society
7. Less common subordinating conjunctions
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Revisit and extend teaching and learning activities in previous section, now including less common
subordinating conjunctions: while, until, once, since, ever since, as, as if, like, except for, except that,
particularly focusing on the relationship of concession: although, even though, even if, though (see
Resource 1: Conjunction chart).
• Read a passage of a curriculum-related text. On a second read, students identify and highlight conjunctions.
• Classify them according to:
> relationship between ideas/clauses: adding, time, contrast, cause-eect, condition/concession, manner,
comparison
> the way that they connect clauses:
– coordinating conjunctions connect 2 main clauses (compound)
– subordinating conjunctions connect a subordinate clause to a main clause (complex).
Links to punctuation and intonation
Point out that when the subordinate clause comes in front of the main clause, we need to put a comma between
the clauses. When speaking, we use intonation: the way we read a sentence beginning with a subordinate clause
indicates that we are orienting/giving background information and have not yet reached the main clause.
• Students work in groups to identify conjunctions and the logical relationships created between ideas in other
topic-related passages.
• Students find at least one alternative conjunction which would make the same meaning.
• Display examples of the same conjunction used to express dierent logical relationships and discuss the
dierent meanings being created. Develop charts showing analysis such as the one on the following page
(see Resource 2 and Resource 3 for full texts).
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE | 13
Conjunction highlighted Logical relationship Alternative
While visiting his grandmother, Jonas escapes. Time: two events happened at the same time Whilst, When
While Jonas was timid, he showed courage. Contrast: two seemingly opposing qualities
Even though,
Although
While Qin was a harsh leader, he made many
positive reforms.
Concession: acknowledge a negative aspect,
before positive evaluation
Although,
Even if,
Though,
Whilst
Conjunction highlighted Logical relationship Alternative
This has been used since Roman times.
Time: it has been used for this duration. It
wasn’t used before this time period
Ever since,
‘hadn’t been
used’ before
Since water needs to be carried from natural
water sources, aqueducts are still used today.
Cause: for this reason, this still happens Because, As
Conjunction highlighted Logical relationship Alternative
Although the tools today are more developed,
they are based on Roman technology.
Concession: acknowledge further
developments, before link to Roman invention
Though,
Even though,
Whilst
Although Jonas was timid, he showed great
courage.
Contrast: two seemingly opposing qualities
Even though,
While
Conjunction highlighted Logical relationship Alternative
Attach the tube as shown in the diagram. Contrast: how the action should be done like
As Jonas shines the torch, the reader sees
what he is seeing.
Time: two events happened at the same time When
As the Romans had a lot of marshy areas,
they wanted to find ways to drain the land.
Cause: for this reason, they wanted to do that
Because,
Since
• Create cloze passages from familiar texts, deleting
the conjunctions.
• In pairs, students insert appropriate conjunctions
and annotate their choices, identifying the
relationship expressed.
• Students write a simple clause related to the topic
of learning on a piece of card, eg Roman-invented
technology is still used today, then have them
choose a subordinating conjunction card and
expand the sentence, orally or in writing, to create
a complex sentence, eg:
Roman-
invented
technology
is still used
today
even though
their empire fell
long ago.
except that
it has been further
improved.
although
they may look
dierent.
8. Relative pronouns: which,
where, who, whose and whom
Revising ‘which’ and ‘where’
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Provide examples without relative pronouns to
model ‘think aloud’ steps to:
> identify the repeated information
> determine if the thing you want to refer back
to is a thing or a place
> delete the repeated information and replace
with appropriate relative pronoun
> replace the full stop with a comma, for example:
Jonas escapes into an incredible fantasy world.
In that fantasy world, where he must face
his fears.
They adapted a small device called a ‘groma’. A
groma, which was a piece of wood with a cross
cut into the top of it.
• In pairs, students rework other sentences.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
14 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE
• Provide students with examples of sentences using relative pronouns (see the examples below) and model
steps to:
> identify and circle the relative pronoun
> identify and underline what it stands in place of, noting that at times it relates back to a bigger idea or the
whole previous clause
> draw an arrow to connect the 2:
They invented technology and methods of building,
which
were ahead of their time.
The readers are compelled to gaze into Jonas’ eyes,
where
they see the flames from the fire reflected.
Quin also built a network of roads, canals and bridges,
which
made travel and trade easier.
• During close readings of curriculum texts, model and have students ask questions to identify what the
relative pronoun relates back to: What were ahead of their time?; Where do they see the flames reflected?;
What made travel and trade easier?
• Point out that the relative pronoun is always right next to the thing or place it relates back to. If we want to
elaborate on the first element of a clause, then the clause needs to be ‘interrupted’ by the relative clause.
For example:
These methods of building were invented by the Romans. They are still used today.
These methods of building,
which
are still used today, were invented by the Romans.
Punctuation
Teach the use of commas before and after an interrupting clause, which work like brackets. Make the link with
intonation: the pause and changed inflection indicate that this is an aside interrupting the main clause. During
reading, reinforce that we can skip that information. Students read sentences without interrupting clause to get
the main idea and then go back to see added elaborating information.
Colour-coding relative pronouns
Here, where the focus is on sentence structure and combining clauses, we have used the aspect’s orange
colour-code. However, if you were colour-coding to identify the parts of a clause (participants, processes and
circumstances), which and who would typically be colour-coded red as they generally stand in place of the
subject participant. Where would typically be blue because it generally relates to a circumstance of place.
Focus on ‘who’, ‘whose’ and ‘whom’
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Explain that in texts that continually refer to and provide information about people, relative clauses are a useful
resource to connect elaborating information.
• Provide students with examples of sentences with and without relative clauses such as those provided below:
With relative pronouns Without relative pronouns
The story revolves about Jonas, a vulnerable boy,
who readers meet on his last day of primary school.
The story revolves about Jonas, a vulnerable boy.
Readers meet him on his last day of primary school.
The Wormworld Saga will completely engage lower
secondary readers, who will love this visual journey.
The Wormworld Saga will completely engage lower
secondary readers. They will love this visual journey.
The graphic novel award was given to Lieske, whose
skilful interplay of text and image was commended
by the judges.
The graphic novel award was given to Lieske. His
skilful interplay of text and image was commended
by the judges.
• Discuss the eect of using a relative pronoun or not, eliciting comments such as:
> without it, the text is more basic and repetitive: shifts the focus too much onto the readers, doesn’t flow as well
> with it, the text flows, sounds more sophisticated, packs the information in more tightly, seems less repetitive.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE | 15
• Make explicit the use of who, whom and whose and provide or develop with students’ explanations and
examples such as those provided below:
Who refers to someone who will be the subject of the clause that follows (equivalent pronouns: I, he,
she, they, we):
Jonas must face his own fears, when he
escapes into an incredible fantasy world.
Jonas, who escapes into an incredible fantasy world, must face his own fears.
Whom refers to someone who will be the object of the clause that follows. It often follows a preposition:
to, for or by (equivalent pronouns: me, him, her, them, us):
Readers have been positioned to form an intimate connection with Jonas. They now have a strong
empathy for him
.
Readers have been positioned to form an intimate connection with Jonas, for whom they now have
a strong empathy.
Whose is the possessive form so will be used to refer to someone who owns something (equivalent pronouns:
my, his, her, their, our):
The reader’s gaze is drawn to a close-up of Jonas. His
eyes reflect the flames of the fire.
The reader’s gaze is drawn to a close-up of Jonas, whose eyes reflect the flames of the fire.
• Students look for examples in curriculum texts and add them to class lists.
• During reading, stop and ask ‘who, whose or whom?’ to identify to whom the relative pronoun relates, eg
Who escapes into an incredible fantasy world? Whose eyes reflect the flames of the fire? For whom does
the reader now have a strong empathy?
• Model then jointly combine sentences using explanations and examples on anchor charts.
• Point out that the relative pronoun is always right next to the thing it relates back to. So, if we want to
elaborate on the first element of the main clause, then the main clause needs to be ‘interrupted’ by the
relative clause. The relative clause—below in orange—interrupts the main clause in black, and highlights
that this enables the relative pronoun to immediately follow the noun it relates to.
20
Margaret reluctantly accepted the medal. She was very humble. she = who:
Margaret,
who
was very humble, reluctantly accepted the medal.
He wanted to thank Margaret. He owed his life to her. to her = to whom:
He wanted to thank Margaret,
to whom
he owed his life.
Margaret battled on through. Her courage was inspiring. her = whose:
Margaret,
whose
courage was inspiring, battled on through.
• Experiment with putting the elaborating relative clause at the end to see that it doesn’t work, eg:
Jonas must face his own fears, when he
escapes into an incredible fantasy world.
Jonas must face his own fears, who escapes into an incredible fantasy world.
• Establish that the relative pronoun must immediately follow the person/thing it relates to, which means that
it needs to ‘interrupt’ the main clause:
Jonas, who escapes into an incredible fantasy world, must face his own fears.
• Make up card sets of relative clauses that can be combined to make sentences. These could be topic-related
or using, for example, Resource 2 or Resource 3. Provide cards with the relative pronouns: Who? Which?
Where? Whose? Whom?
• Students then join the sentences using the correct relative pronoun. This creates complex sentences with
dependent relative clauses. Note that they may have to make further changes to the sentence strips as they
combine the clauses.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
20
See notes about related punctuation and intonation in previous learning sequence.
16 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE
• In groups of 3, students create sentences with
interrupting clauses on cards, cutting the main
clause in 2 parts to insert the relative clause and
demonstrating how the interrupting clause can
be removed to get the main idea and reinserted
to give the elaborating idea.
Purposes of relative clauses in Resource 3:
Qin Shi Huang, the first Emperor of China
Relative clauses can elaborate:
• with more information about a thing: which is
the origin of the word ‘China’; which included
an army of 8000 clay soldiers and horses, as
well as real chariots and weapons.
• with more information about a person, including
their motivation or a comment: whose intention
was to conquer other states; who is remembered
for the way he unified the country of China. Here,
both examples are interrupting clauses, which
interrupt a main clause to give some background
information.
• on the whole previous clause, explaining its eect
– what resulted from it: which made travel and
trade easier; which gave protection from possible
invasions from the North.
9. Non-finite clauses: -ing and
-ed verb forms
Dierent forms of non-finite clauses
21
• The infinitive ‘to’ verb form, eg To control the
animals, he used a gentle voice.
22
• The -ing (present participle) verb form, eg Jonas
and Raya are pictured high up on a hill, looking
down upon Raya’s kingdom. In finite clauses, the
-ing participle form is preceded by an auxiliary
(helper) to denote tense and create the continuous/
ongoing aspect, eg was looking, is looking, will be
looking.
• The -ed/en (past participle) verb form, eg Pictured
high up on a hill, Jonas and Raya look down upon
Raya’s kingdom. In finite clauses, the -ed/en
participle form is preceded by an auxiliary (helper)
to denote tense and to create the completed/
perfect tense, eg has pictured, had pictured, was
pictured, were pictured.
• The -ing form of the auxiliary (having or being)
verb, eg Being pictured high on a hill, portrays
their power over the kingdom; Having pictured
Jonas and Raya high on a hill, the artist has
portrayed their power over the kingdom.
Engage
• Explain that students will be learning how to
combine clauses more concisely and for better
flow (smoothness/fluidity).
• Model and then jointly analyse sentences with
non-finite clauses, using ‘think alouds’ to explain
and justify, eg:
Thinking about my parents’ predicament, I decided
to investigate residential aged care.
• Identify how many ideas/clauses there are: Every
clause has a process. There are 2 processes here,
so there must be 2 clauses. Highlight verbs green:
Thinking about my parents’ predicament, I
decided to investigate residential aged care.
• Determine where the clause boundaries lie,
eg the first idea is thinking about my parents’
predicament. It ends at the comma and then you
have the second idea: I decided to investigate
residential aged care. Your intonation changes,
so that helps show the 2 parts. Physically cut the
sentence, or use double slashes:
Thinking about my parents’ predicament, // I
decided to investigate residential aged care.
• Discuss and record other ways the 2 ideas (clauses)
could have been written, eg:
I thought about my parents’ predicament and
decided to investigate residential aged care.
After I thought about my parents’ predicament,
I decided to investigate residential aged care.
I thought about my parents’ predicament, which
made me decide to investigate residential aged care.
• Compare and discuss why an author might have
chosen to begin with the non-finite clause, eg it
makes the thinking background to the decision;
cause-eect is implied but not stated – leaves it
to the reader to make the connection, which then
engages the reader more; makes it seem that the
thinking about the parents is still going on as they
decide and begin to investigate.
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Classify clauses as main or subordinate: The first
clause doesn’t make sense on its own: it’s telling
when or why they decided to investigate. (You could
use a conjunction at the beginning, like ‘because’
or ‘after’ thinking about my parent’s predicament.)
Because it is ‘incomplete’ and cannot stand alone,
it must be subordinate: background to the main
idea. The second clause is the main idea: it makes
sense on its own too.
Thinking about my parents’ predicament =
subordinate
I decided to investigate residential aged care = main
21
See also the introduction to Verbs and verb groups ‘Grammatical accuracy: control of the verb group and tense’ – ‘Elaborated tenses’.
22
See 4 ‘Complex sentences with because, so that and non-finite ‘to + verb’’.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE | 17
• In pairs, students analyse a dierent sentence.
They ‘cut’ it and then place the main clause on
one side of a table (physical or digital) and the
subordinate clause on the other side.
Main clause Subordinate clause
I decided to investigate
residential aged care.
(After) Thinking about
my parents’ predicament,
I headed north to my
home and the sun.
Feeling cold and lonely,
the ringmaster
controlled the
animals’ movements.
Using his voice gently,
Jonas escapes into
an incredible fantasy
world.
While visiting his
grandmother,
Jonas and Raya are
pictured high up on
a hill
Looking down upon
Raya’s kingdom,
there was a small
stone.
Attached to the end,
• Make explicit that these are a third type of subordinate
clause. In summary, 3 resources can be used to
create subordinate clauses:
1. subordinating conjunctions (see Resource 1)
2. relative clauses
3. non-finite clauses.
• Discuss patterns they see in the subordinate clauses,
eliciting observations such as:
> verbs mainly have -ing endings
> verb is at the beginning of the clause – but it’s
not a command as in Use your voice gently
> the subordinate clause is often before the main
clause, but could be after it
> there is no subject/participant doing the process.
• Ask what the term ‘finite’ means to them: what
word associations can they make, eg final, definite,
finished, opposite of infinite.
• Explain that most clauses are finite clauses: they
are definite in that we know:
> who or what the subject participant is or who
or what the process relates to
> whether the process has happened (past);
happens/is happening (present), or is yet to
happen (future).
• Using examples, point out that non-finite clauses
are not definite because, without going to the main
clause to find out, we don’t know:
> who or what the process relates to
> whether the process has happened, is happening,
or will happen.
• Make explicit that non-finite clauses have no subject
participant and no tense.
• Return to examples in the table above and ask
‘who’ or ‘what’ to identify the subject participants
in the subordinate clauses. Point out that we can
only find this out by going to the main clause, eg:
> who is/was/will be thinking about their parents?
– I
> who is/was/will be using his voice gently?
– the ringmaster
> what is/was/will be attached to the end?
– a small stone.
• Point out that we don’t know what tense to ask
questions to identify the participant.
• Provide examples where the tense of the main
clause has been changed. Point out that the tense
of the non-finite clause remains unchanged:
Non-finite
subordinate
clause
Main clause Tense
Using his
voice gently,
the ringmaster
controlled the animals’
movements.
Past
the ringmaster was
controlling the animals’
movements.
Past
the ringmaster had
controlled the animals’
movements.
Past
the ringmaster is
controlling the animals’
movements.
Present
the ringmaster controls
the animals’ movements.
Present
the ringmaster will
control the animals’
movements.
Future
the ringmaster will be
controlling the animals’
movements.
Future
• Model creating non-finite clauses by removing the
2 elements that non-finite clauses do not have:
subject participant and tense. Use ‘think alouds’
to work through the steps involved. Begin with
colour-coded sentences to help see patterns and
what is removed or changed, as in the examples
on the following page.
Clauses must have the same subject
When pruning a clause to a non-finite, it must have
the same subject as the main clause to begin with,
so that the subject of the non-finite clause can be
retrieved from the main clause.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
18 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Example 1: one main, one subordinate clause
Subordinate clause Main clause
When he changed from
King to Emperor,
he also changed his
name to Qin Shi Huang.
• Since there is a subordinate clause, we will prune it
to make it non-finite because we need to have a
main clause.
• A non-finite clause doesn’t have a subject
participant, so it can be removed:
Subordinate clause Main clause
When he
changed
from King to Emperor,
he also changed his
name to Qin Shi Huang.
• A subordinate clause also has no finite tense, so
verb form needs to change. Because there is no
auxiliary to remove, we change the verb to the
-ing form:
Subordinate clause Main clause
When he
changed
changing from King
to Emperor,
he also changed his
name to Qin Shi Huang.
• We can now choose to keep the conjunction,
or to remove it to have: Changing from King to
Emperor…
• Reflect on why an author might choose to use
non-finite clauses in a biography, eliciting that
biographies typically have the person in focus as
the repeated subject throughout the text, and
non-finites allow the writer to remove the subject
in the non-finite clause, reducing repetition and
creating flow.
• Discuss which other text types this would also be
relevant to, eg narratives, personal recounts and
reflections.
Example 2: two main clauses
• Here there are 2 main clauses, so either can be
pruned.
Main clause Main clause
The readers look over
Jonas’ shoulder
and follow the line
of torchlight into the
hideout.
• If we choose to make the first main clause
subordinate clause, we can remove the subject
and change the verb form. In the second clause,
the conjunction is then removed.
• Because the subject participant (the readers) has
been removed from the first clause, it must be
added back into the second, which now becomes
the main clause:
Subordinate
non-finite clause
Main clause
The readers
Looking
over Jonas’ shoulder,
and
the readers follow
the line of torchlight
into the hideout.
• If we choose to make the second main clause the
subordinate clause, nothing needs to change in
the first clause, apart from adding a comma. In
the second, the conjunction and the subject are
removed and the verb form changes to -ing:
Main clause
Subordinate
non-finite clause
The readers look over
Jonas’ shoulder,
and
(they) following
the line of torchlight
into the hideout.
• Discuss the eects of each choice on the reader
and why we might make the choice as a writer,
eg more streamlined, easily flow from one event
to the other, 2 events happen simultaneously.
Example 3: auxiliary with past participle
• In this example, the pronoun as subject is removed,
as well as the auxiliary to remove the tense:
Main clause
Subordinate
non-finite clause
The Wormworld Saga
is an online graphic
novel.
It
was created by
digital artist, Daniel
Lieske.
• Discuss the eects of combining the 2 ideas in one
sentence and point out that the author now has
the option to change the order of the clause and
orient the reader to the creator: Created by digital
artist, Daniel Lieske, The Wormworld Saga is an
online graphic novel.
Example 4: interrupting relative clause
This relative clause can also be pruned by removing
the relative pronoun as the subject and adjusting verb
form to remove the tense.
Beginning of
main clause
Interrupting
relative clause
End of main
clause
A small stone,
(which
is called
a plumb)
was attached
to the end.
• Students work in pairs to create other non-finite
clauses, thinking aloud to articulate the steps
involved and their decisions, including why they
would make that choice.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE | 19
Trimming to create non-finite clauses in Resource 3: Qin Shi Huang, the first Emperor of China
• Trimming clause and deleting conjunction so that the logical relationship is implied: When he changed
Changing from King, to Emperor; Because he murdered
murdering anyone who disobeyed him.
• Trimming the clause and keeping (or replacing) the conjunction to make logical relationship explicit: (when?
time?) while touring Eastern China; (how? means?) through creating laws, building roads and canals and
protecting the people from invasion.
• Trimming to remove relative pronoun: which meant
meaning first Emperor of China.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
20 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE
LEVELS 1012 LEAPING TO LEVELS 1314
Sentence fragments for eect in narrative or persuasive texts is also a feature of Levels 11–12 and beyond.
23
LEVELS 10–12 LEAPING TO LEVELS 13–14
Learning sequence Language in focus Genres
10. Complex sentences
crafted for precision and
eect
• subordinating conjunctions
• relative clauses
• non-finite clauses
• projection
• issue analyses
• factorial and consequential
explanations
• expositions: arguments,
discussions, debates
• investigations
11. Densely packed,
sophisticated simple
sentences
• nominalisation
• relating processes, particularly
causal relating
10. Complex sentences crafted for precision and eect
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Revisit activities related to subordinating conjunctions in Levels 7–9 leaping to 10–12. To support students
leap to Levels 13–14, include written-like conjunctions: whereas, rather than, wherever, whenever.
• Read a curriculum text, such as Resource 4: Model text: PE issues analysis. Discuss the purpose of the text
and the role and relationship between the reader and writer – who was this written by/for and why? Where
does this place it on the register continuum? How does that influence the language choices?
• On a second read, stop to jointly identify the number of clauses (ideas: happenings or states) in each sentence,
using ‘think alouds’ to explain and justify thinking, eg How many clauses are there? What guides can we
use? Create a class anchor chart: Guides to identifying clauses in a sentence, including details such as those
below. Create additional anchor charts with annotated examples, such as those on the following pages.
Guides to identifying the number of clauses and how they are connected
Each clause contains a verb/verb group, expressing the process. This means every time we have a new process
(verb group), we have a new clause. The following features are guides that can help to identify where a clause ends:
• punctuation and intonation (pausing and changes of intonation patterns) are signals that a new clause may
be beginning
• the presence of any of the resources for connecting coordinate clauses:
> coordinating conjunction, eg and, but, so, or, and then
> projection (direct/quoted speech) where a clause is projected by a thinking or saying process to quote
what was said or thought inside quote marks, eg She said/thought, ‘It is enough!’
• the presence of any of the resources for connecting subordinate clauses:
> subordinating conjunction, eg even though, except that, whereas, rather than
> relative pronouns, eg who, which, whose, whom, where
> non-finite verb forms: to, -ing, or -ed
> projection (indirect/reported speech or thought): where a clause is projected by a thinking or saying
process to report what was said or thought. ‘That’ or a ‘wh’ question word, or ‘if’, typically follows the
thinking/saying process, eg She said that it was enough. She wondered if it is was enough. The clause
with the thinking or saying process (She said; She wondered) is called the projecting clause since it
projects what was said or thought.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
23
See NAPLAN Writing: Narrative Marking Guide In the distance (p.60) and The Deep Blue Nothing (p.68) as models.
National Assessment Program (2010) ‘Writing: Narrative Marking Guide’, Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting
Authority, available at https://www.nap.edu.au/_resources/2010_Marking_Guide.pdf (accessed November 2020)
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE | 21
Example 1
Some consider // Australia’s image as a successful
elite sporting nation to be critical, // justifying the
greater funding for elite sports, // whereas others
believe // that the nation’s long-term sporting
success is dependent on strong support for
grassroots sports. //
• Classify the clauses according to resources used.
Ask what kinds of clauses/resources have been
used to connect the ideas and annotate, eg:
Clause Text Clause type
1. Some consider //
Projecting clause
telling us someone
thinks something
2.
(that) Australia’s
image as a successful
elite sporting nation
to be critical, //
Projected clause
telling what is
thought
3.
justifying the greater
funding for elite
sports, //
Non-finite clause
adding a resulting
thought
4.
whereas others
believe //
Subordinating
conjunction,
signalling that
another group
think otherwise
5.
that the nation’s
long-term sporting
success is dependent
on strong support for
grassroots sports. //
Projected clause
telling what is
thought
• Reinforce metalanguage for grammatical resources
used: students add terms to their bilingual glossary;
match terms, explanations and examples; annotate
drafts to identify resources used; and discuss
purpose and eect.
• Investigate whether the clauses could be rearranged
in any way, eg:
Some believe // that the nation’s long-term
sporting success is dependent on strong support
for grassroots sports // whereas others justify the
greater funding for elite sports, // as they consider
// (that) Australia’s image as a successful elite
sporting nation to be critical. //
• Discuss the eect of doing so. Why might an
author choose one arrangement over another?
Elicit that delicate choices reflect audience and
purpose. For example, either of 2 statements
(clauses): Children must be protected; We don’t
want a nanny state, could be the main clause when
using a conjunction of concession – Although. The
choice of which to make the subordinate clause is
determined by what the author wants to concede
or orient the reader to and which statement they
want to have the most impact. To an audience of
parents, the sentence would be Although we don’t
want a nanny state, children must be protected.
To an audience of civil libertarians, the sentence
would be Although children must be protected,
we don’t want a nanny state.
Example 2
Consequently, the report by head of the Independent
Sports Panel, David Crawford, << (which
was)
released in November 2009 >>, comes as no surprise.
Point out that, despite so many commas, there are
only 2 clauses here: there are only 2 processes: 2
ideas/chunks, one inserted within another:
• << released in November 2009 >> is an interrupting
clause, adding more background information
about the report. As an interrupting clause, it has
commas around it, like brackets. It is an example
of a non-finite clause created by trimming a
relative clause.
• a comma is also used to mark o the text connective
(Consequently), and the name of the head (David
Crawford).
24
Example 3
It questions // why a majority of federal funding
goes towards the elite level of low-participation
sports, // rather than being directed to the grassroots
level of high-participation sports. //
Point out that the first clause is a saying process (It
questions), projecting what is being asked, with the
projected clause beginning with a ‘wh’ question word.
Example 4
Between 2007 and 2008, a majority of the ninety
million dollar funding [[provided by the Australian
Sports Commission]] went towards Olympic sports,
// which, according to Keane (2009), unfortunately
left grassroots sports in strife. //
• Point out that, while there are 3 verb groups in this
sentence, there are only 2 units of meaning with
the first unit containing an embedded clause.
25
The first unit of meaning could be summarised as:
at some time, something went somewhere, ie:
Between 2007 and 2008, a majority of the ninety
million dollar funding [[provided by the Australian
24
Placing a name alongside a noun group in this way is technically termed: apposition.
25
See also Nouns and noun groups 11 ‘Embedded relative clauses to specify which people, places or things’.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
22 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Sports Commission]] went towards Olympic
sports, //. The embedded clause within the square
brackets [[ ]] is part of the noun group answering
the question: ‘What went towards Olympic sports?’
It is essential information to qualify or specify which
ninety million dollar funding is being referred to
and from where it came.
• The second clause is a subordinate relative clause
which elaborates by commenting on the eect
of the action. This clause is interrupted by a
circumstance of angle (according to Keane (2009))
and a comment adverb (unfortunately) placed
between the subject of the clause (which) and the
verb/process (left): which, according to Keane (2009),
unfortunately left grassroots sports in strife //
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Display some related ideas as single clauses,
such as those below (number them for ongoing
discussion):
1. The strife for grassroots sports is exemplified
through Hockey South Australia.
2. Hockey South Australia requires three million
dollars.
3. The money is needed for additional pitches.
4. Additional pitches are needed for two reasons:
5. there is increasing player demand
6. they can’t secure international tournaments
without them.
• Model/jointly connect ideas in a sentence with
multiple dependent clauses, using metalanguage
in ‘think alouds’ to explain and justify choices.
• Talk about clauses 1 and 2 and ask how they could
be combined. Ask what device could be used to
elaborate rather than repeat, eliciting the answer
‘a relative pronoun’. Now ask which relative pronoun
relates back to a thing (rather than a person),
eliciting the answer ‘which’:
The strife for grassroots sports is exemplified
through Hockey South Australia.
,Hockey South
Australia which requires three million dollars.
• Ask how this new sentence can be combined with
clause 3: what resource could be used when a
reason/purpose is added? Elicit either a subordinating
conjunction (so that) OR a non-finite clause
beginning with ‘to/in order to’. A new verb is also
required, for example, build, prepare, develop,
have, provide. There are also other possibilities:
have students try some dierent options and see
the eect.
The strife for grassroots sports is exemplified
through Hockey South Australia.
,Hockey South
Australia which requires three million dollars. so
that they can develop additional pitches. OR in
order to provide additional pitches.
• Students might say that the second sounds more
formal and authoritative, as it doesn’t use the
personal pronoun ‘they’ and uses a less common
conjunction.
• Ask students if the following 3 clauses can also
be combined with or built onto the sentence
above. Clauses 5 and 6 provide reasons for why
the additional pitches are required: once again,
these are reasons or purposes requiring either
a subordinating conjunction (so that) OR a
non-finite clause beginning with ‘to/in order to’.
Clause 4 now no longer needs to state ‘for two
reasons’: by choosing a new verb, one can explain
how more pitches will relate to increasing player
demand. Verbs could be: meet, match, cater to,
accommodate.
• Work with students to trial dierent options and
see the eect.
The strife for grassroots sports is exemplified
through Hockey South Australia.
,Hockey South
Australia which requires three million dollars. so
that they can develop additional pitches. OR in
order to provide additional pitches. Additional
pitches are needed for two reasons: so that
they can meet increasing player demand OR to
accommodate increasing player demand They
can’t and secure international tournaments
without them
.
• Again, the newly formed sentence sounds more
formal and authoritative, as it doesn’t use the
personal pronoun ‘they’ and uses the more formal
‘in order to’.
• Since the last clause is adding another reason,
we could simply use ‘and’. We will have to delete
the subject, so that it matches the non-finite
clause we are joining it to (They can’t
and secure
international tournaments without them
.).
• Once sucient examples have been worked
through as a class, students work in pairs to combine
related ideas/clauses, thinking aloud to articulate
steps involved and decisions.
• Students display and explain their final version and
compare versions developed by other groups,
discussing the eect of dierent choices and
when/why one might be more appropriate.
11. Densely packed,
sophisticated simple sentences
Engage
• Provide 3 versions of a paragraph (one active,
one passive voice and one nominalised version)
on a curriculum topic such as those provided in
Resource 5: Shifting from active to passive voice
and nominalisation.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE | 23
• In pairs, students read the paragraphs, discuss
dierences and place on the register continuum.
• Students justify placements using examples of
language choices in the paragraphs.
• Discuss in which contexts (purpose, everyday or
technical field, roles and relationships and mode of
communication) each would be most appropriate.
• Groups identify verbs and noun groups in a
designated paragraph and then jigsaw analysis.
Groups use the shared analysis to discuss/annotate
the eects, as in Resource 5.
• Elicit/make explicit that the most spoken-like text
is in the active voice; the middle text uses passive
voice which creates distance by focussing on what
is done rather than the ‘doer/actor’; and the most
written-like text uses nominalisation to remove
humans and take a more abstract perspective.
• Explain that you will focus on nominalisation in
order to comprehend and produce academic texts
using technical, abstract and specialised ‘written-
like’ language forms, in order to communicate
complexities of curriculum content. These texts
are precise and densely packed.
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Introduce a text relevant to a curriculum topic,
such as water scarcity.
• Provide one copy of the text between 2 students.
• In pairs:
> student A reads one allocated paragraph, while
student B listens to get the gist
> as student A rereads, student B attempts to
represent the ideas in visuals and notes
> reverse roles for a second allocated paragraph
> discuss and clarify meanings, using both the
written text and visuals/notes before a whole
class sharing.
• Discuss how densely packed the information
is in the written text, making explicit the role
of nominalisation.
Nominalisation
Some criteria/tests to identify a nominalisation:
• it must be a noun
• when rewording more simply, another word form
(verb, adjective, conjunction, etc) is used in place
of the noun, eg scarcity = water is very scarce;
changes (the changes in the climate) = change
(the climate is changing); result (the result of an
imbalance) = because (there is an imbalance)
• using a noun increases the level of abstraction.
Some words are somewhat arguable as to whether
they are nominalisations, such as those coloured but
not bolded in the extract below. As we unpack their
meaning, we may initially use a more everyday noun,
but as we unpack it further we find we need a verb,
adjective or quantifier/measure, eg drought = a time
period when it hasn’t rained, or there hasn’t been
enough rain; resources = things you are supplied/
can access and use; levels = amount, how much.
Purple has been used for adjectives and measures
here, since they often provide evaluation or vary the
intensity of the evaluation.
• Revise and develop a class definition and key
understandings
26
about nominalisations.
• Identify and colour-code nominalisations
27
and
underline the noun groups they are part of.
Water scarcity and water stress
What is water scarcity?
Water scarcity is the imbalance between water
availability and demand for fresh water, leading
to water shortages. This often occurs in arid and
semi-arid regions aected by droughts and changes
in climate. Water scarcity is closely linked with poverty
and with unclean water and lack of sanitation.
(Ashton, Heckler & Jones, 2012:6)
What is water stress?
According to the World Water Council water stress
is the result of an imbalance between water use and
water resources. Water stress causes the decrease
in the quantity and quality of fresh water. A decrease
in water quantity is caused by over use, while fresh
water quality is aected by eutrophication (a process
in which the oxygen levels are depleted), pollution
and increasing levels of salt in the water.
(Ashton et al, 2012:7)
28
26
See also Glossary and the introduction to Nouns and noun groups ‘Nominalisation’.
27
There is often debate about what constitutes a nominalisation: you may not identify all of those in the focus text, or you may
identify other abstract nouns, such as environment.
28
Ashton K, Heckler A & Jones C (2012) Water for life: Investigating water as a global issue, Geography Teachers’ Association
of Victoria Inc (Global Education Project Victoria), available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Water4Life (accessed December 2020)
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
24 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE
• Create a table with 2 columns and record in the left column some noun groups from the focus text. In the
right column jointly unpack the nominalisations.
Noun group Unpacking the noun groups: saying it in everyday conversations
water scarcity, imbalance between
availability and demand
don’t have enough fresh water for all the things people need to do
in their daily and work life
water shortages
there isn’t enough water for people to use for drinking, cleaning
and for agriculture and workplaces
closely linked with poverty, unclean
water and lack of sanitation
not having enough water is closely linked with people being poor,
having to use unclean water and not being able to wash, clean and
remove sewage, etc to be hygienic
• Identify and discuss:
> what now expresses what was the nominalisation (bolded above)
> how the grammar has changed as the ideas are unpacked (more words, more verbs/clauses)
> eects of changes, and when/why we would choose to pack or unpack issues, eg pack issues into
introductions, topic sentences and summaries and unpack them in the body of the paragraph as we
explain, elaborate and exemplify.
• Explore the number and composition of clauses, making explicit the complexity of ideas and vocabulary,
in contrast to simpler structures (simple sentence: one verb group, one clause):
> Water stress causes the decrease in the quantity and quality of fresh water.
> According to the World Water Council, water stress is the result of an imbalance between water use and
water resources. (Ideas packed in noun groups built around nominalisations.)
Complexity in written vs spoken-like language
Language at the written end of the register continuum has increased technicality, abstraction and density.
It typically has:
• fewer but longer clauses, as ideas that are expressed across several shorter clauses in spoken language are
compacted: nominalising verbs thereby reduces the number of clauses
• few action processes, with actions expressed as nominalisations: use water = water use
• more relating processes, as it deals with relationships between abstract ideas (is) often causal relationship (causes).
• Students discuss, as if in an everyday conversation, issues related to curriculum topic (for example, the issues
in Resource 4). Capture more informal and spoken-like expressions.
Issues expressed in spoken-like conversations
People are saying too much money is being given to top sportspeople and not enough goes to local
sports clubs.
Yeah, and if the local sports clubs don’t have enough money to support young people to start playing
sports, then how is Australia going to keep being as successful as it has been?
And why is so much money being given for elite sports that only a few people play, instead of to local
clubs where so many more people play?
• Discuss how these could be shifted to be more written-like, abstract and compacted. Model and jointly work
through and articulate the steps taken, eg:
1. Identify action and saying process and any everyday descriptions of quantities or qualities (adjectives).
2. Form nominalisations of these where possible. This may involve a two-step process of initially shifting to
a more precise or technical term and then to a nominalisation:
Issues expressed in spoken-like
everyday conversations
More precise or
technical terms
Nominalisations
in noun groups
People are saying that too much money
is being given to top sportspeople and
not enough goes to local sports clubs.
discussing/debating
distributed/delegated
unequal/unbalanced
discussion/debate
distribution/delegation
inequality/imbalance
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE | 25
Issues expressed in spoken-like
everyday conversations
More precise or
technical terms
Nominalisations
in noun groups
Yeah, and if the local sports clubs don’t
have enough money to get young people
playing sports, then how is Australia going
to keep being as good as it has been
in sport?
lack/have in/sufficient
involved in/participating
continue to be successful
a lack of funds
involvement/participation
continuation, success
And why is more money being given for
elite sports that only a few people play,
instead of to local clubs where so many
more people play?
greater funding allocated
low numbers participating
high numbers participating
greater allocation of funds
lower participation rate
higher participation rate
Purple has been used for measures and adjectives that provide evaluation or vary the intensity of the evaluation.
See also Evaluative language.
3. Use nominalisations and more precise, technical terms to repackage information into longer noun
groups (typically with nominalisations as key noun).
4. Find a new verb to be the new process: as most verbs in the spoken-like versions will have been
nominalised—or used to perform other functions—a new verb will usually be required. Typically, it will
be a relating (often a causal relating) process.
Issues expressed in spoken-like
everyday conversations
Rewritten using nominalisations
People are saying that too much money
is being given to top sportspeople and
not enough goes to local sports clubs.
Current debate centres around the issue of the imbalance
in the distribution of funds to elite sports compared to
local, grassroots sports clubs.
Yeah, and if the local sports clubs don’t
have enough money to get young people
playing sports, then how is Australia going
to keep being as good as it has been
in sport?
Without sucient funding of grassroots sports teams,
enabling them to initiate and foster involvement of
young players, // the continued sporting success of
Australia is at risk.
And why is more money being given for
elite sports that only a few people play,
instead of to local clubs where so many
more people play?
One questions // why a greater allocation of funds is
directed to elite sports with their low participation rate,
// when a lesser amount is allocated to grassroots sports
despite their higher participation rate.
• Experiment with arrangement of ideas for greatest impact for given audience and purpose. For example,
the last example above could be rewritten as:
> One questions // why, with their low participation rate, a greater allocation of funds is being directed to
elite sports, // and a lesser amount allocated to grassroots sports despite their high participation rate.
> The question has to be asked, // why, despite their high participation rate, does grassroots sports receive
a lesser allocation than elite sports, which has a far lower participation rate?
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
26 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Resource 1: Conjunction chart
Coordinating conjunctions
Timing – sequence Show cause and eect Adding Comparing/contrasting
• and then • and so
• so
• and thus
• for
• and
• not only … but also
• but/but not
• or/either … or
• neither … nor
• yet
• else/or else
Subordinating conjunctions
Timing
(When?)
Show cause
and eect
(Why?)
Adding
(And what else?)
Contingency –
condition
(If what?)
Comparing/
contrasting
(Compared with
what?)
• after
• before
• as/just as
• once
• while
• when
• whenever
• as soon as
• until
• now that
• as long as
• since
• every time
• because
• so that
• in order that
• in order to/to
• since
• as
• in case
• lest
• as well as
• besides
• along with
• apart from
• on top of
• in addition to
• if
• even if
• as long as
• on condition that
• unless
• if only
• whether
• like/just like/like
when
• while
• whilst
• as
• as if
• as though
• whereas
• although
• except that
• compared with
• rather than
• instead of
• the way that
Manner/means
(How?)
Contingency –
concession
(Although what?)
• by
• through
• with
• as
• although
• in spite of
• despite
• even though
The examples provided above are only coordinating or subordinating conjunctions if they connect 2 clauses in
the same sentence. Many of the examples can be used for other functions.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE | 27
Resource 2: Review of digital graphic novel
The Wormworld Saga
29
The Wormworld Saga is the first online, graphic novel by German digital artist,
Daniel Lieske. This unique vertical narrative is read by scrolling down to view
the framed images and text placed within an illustrated background. The story
revolves around Jonas, a vulnerable boy, who readers meet on his last day of
primary school. While visiting his grandmother, Jonas escapes through his hidden
trapdoor into an incredible fantasy world, where he must face not only his own
fears but also some sinister creatures.
In this narrative, words and images tell the story from Jonas’ perspective, both
past and present. Speech bubbles show young Jonas’ unfolding thoughts and
dialogue. In conjunction, blue text boxes narrate the story through the voice of
an older Jonas. To add to this narration, the action is often viewed through Jonas’
eyes. For example, in chapter 1, when Jonas returns to his secret headquarters,
the readers look over Jonas’ shoulder and follow the line created by the torch
light into the hideout. This point of view, and the accompanying speech bubble
‘Everything’s like I left it. Good.’
(Chapter 1, 2013), lets the readers into Jonas’ secret
world. Throughout the text, the continuing pattern of words and images reveals
Jonas’ inner world. Because of this, readers feel as if they are journeying along
with Jonas.
In addition, Lieske’s use of over-sized, expressive eyes captures the readers’ gaze,
so that they feel Jonas’ emotions. For instance, when Jonas confronts his worst
fear, fire, he is drawn as an extreme close-up, and looks directly at the readers.
The readers are compelled to gaze at Jonas, where they see the flames from the
fire reflected in his eyes. Lieske’s choice of intimate, social distance emphasises
the full force of Jonas’ terror.
Lieske also skilfully uses the technique of drawing from dierent angles to illustrate
the growth in Jonas’ character. In chapter 1, readers look down on Jonas sitting
alone on a park bench, appearing tiny and lost. The low angle emphasises
Jonas’ feeling of powerlessness about what awaits him after primary school. In
comparison, in chapter 3, Lieske draws Jonas and Raya high up on a hill looking
down upon Raya’s kingdom. This high angle shows them in a position of strength.
The Wormworld Saga is a creative and enchanting story about facing one’s fears.
It teaches that, with persistence and courage, one can achieve great heights.
Lieske’s excellent use of text and image will completely engage readers from
middle primary to lower secondary, who will all love this visual journey.
Comments on
complex sentences
Subordinating
conjunctions
Time: while and when
to orient the reader to
a particular instance
in the novel
Manner: by
Comparison: as if
Cause/reason: so that
Relative pronouns
Who to add elaborating
ideas about people
Where to add elaborating
ideas about places
Non-finite verb forms
‘to + verb’ form: cause:
purpose ‘-ing’ participle
form: creates flow/fluidity
by pruning repeated
subject, eg … readers
look down on Jonas
who is
sitting alone on a
park bench. He
appears
ing tiny and lost.
29
The Wormworld Saga by Lieske D is a digital graphic novel, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Wormworld (accessed November 2020).
28 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Resource 3: Qin Shi Huang, the first Emperor of China
The birth of a prince
Qin Shi Huang was born Prince Zheng in the state of Qin, in 259BC. At that time,
China was made up of 7 unstable states that were always fighting for power. This
period from 403BC to 221BC was known as the Warring States Period. During his
childhood, Zheng was educated on the history of the 7 states and on warfare.
At the age of 13, Prince Zheng became King of Qin following the death of his
father. At first, King Zheng ruled with the help of a Regent but at 22, the ambitious
Zheng, whose intention was to conquer other states, took full control. The wars
with the other states lasted for several years until Zheng achieved his goal.
Becoming an emperor
In 221BC, King Zheng united the 7 states and renamed the nation Qin, which is
the origin of the word ‘China’. Changing from King to Emperor, he also changed
his name to Qin Shi Huang, meaning first Emperor of China. This marked the end
of the Warring States Period and the beginning of the Imperial Period and the
Qin Dynasty.
Achievements
Qin, who is remembered for the way he unified the country of China, developed
new laws, a common currency, a system of measurement and a writing system.
Qin also built a network of roads, canals and bridges, which made travel and trade
easier. In addition, he organised the extension of old fortifications in order to
build the Great Wall of China, which gave protection from possible invasions
from the North.
The death of Qin
Despite his many reforms, Qin was an unpopular leader and was considered to be
a tyrant, murdering anyone who disobeyed him. He also ordered the burning of
all history and religious books so that the Qin Dynasty could be the beginning of
history. Since he was so unpopular, he was often in danger as his enemies tried
to assassinate him.
In fear of his death, Qin constructed a tomb, which included an army of 8000
clay soldiers and horses, as well as real chariots and weapons. This clay army was
intended to guard Qin after his death. In 210BC, Emperor Qin became ill and died
while touring Eastern China.
China has remained one country ever since Qin’s rule. He united China through
creating laws, building roads and canals and protecting the people from invasion.
Although Qin was a harsh leader, he was a significant figure in China’s history
because he created a nation.
Bibliography
• Biography for Kids: Emperor Qin Shi Huang, Ducksters, Technological Solutions
Inc. (TSI), available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/EmperorBio (accessed 6 October 2020)
• Mr Donn’s Social Studies Site, Qin Dynasty Ancient China for Kids, available at
http://TLinSA.2.vu/QinDynasty (accessed 6 October 2020)
• Szczepanski K (2020) ‘Biography of Qin Shi Huang, First Emperor of China’,
ThoughtCo., available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/FirstEmperor (accessed 6 October 2020)
Key
Subordinate clause in
orange italics
Subordinating
conjunctions in bold
orange, including those
that begin a non-finite
clause, eg while touring
Eastern China
Relative pronouns
in bold orange and
underlined, eg whose
intention was to conquer
other states
Non-finite verb in
bold green italics, eg
Changing from King
to Emperor
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE | 29
Resource 4: Model text: PE issues analysis
30
To what extent does the Australian Government currently prioritise funding for elite
athletes in comparison to grassroots sports?
Recent claims of an imbalance of funding between elite athletes and grassroots sports
have sparked vigorous debate regarding the delegation of money in sports. Some consider
Australia’s image as a successful elite sporting nation to be critical, justifying the greater
funding for elite sports, whereas others believe that the nation’s long-term sporting success
is dependent on strong support for grassroots sports.
The issue concerning greater funding for elite sports over the grassroots sports is significant
in a sports-oriented society such as Australia. Consequently, the report by head of the
Independent Sports Panel, David Crawford, released in November 2009, comes as no surprise.
The report recommends that additional funding should be prioritised for grassroots sports
(Browning, 2010). It questions why a majority of federal funding goes towards the elite level
of low-participation sports, rather than being directed to the grassroots level of high-
participation sports. Between 2007 and 2008, a majority of the ninety million dollar funding
provided by the Australian Sports Commission went towards Olympic sports, which,
according to Keane
(2009), unfortunately left grassroots sports in strife. Crawford (2009, para. 3)
believes that ‘the funding imbalance between Olympic and non-Olympic sports should be
questioned ...’ This is exemplified through Hockey South Australia, which requires three
million dollars in order to provide additional pitches to accommodate increasing player
demand and secure international tournaments
(Earle, 2010). Therefore, shouldn’t the Australian
government prioritise funding for grassroots sports, in contrast to the millions that have
been spent ensuring victory in the 2012 London Olympics?
In response to the Crawford Report, in May 2010, the Australian Government released the
report ‘Australian Sport – the Pathway to Success’. It is backed by what has been described
as the ‘biggest ... funding injection to Australian sport’
(Jerey, 2010:24); a $195,000,000 boost
for elite and grassroots sport. Federal Sports Minister, Kate Ellis
(2010), guarantees that
national sporting organisations will be prioritised with additional funding to increase
community participation. This will be complemented by the introduction of a strategic
‘whole-of-sport’ approach to strengthen sporting pathways. Ellis
(2010) suggests that this
will help the sport system prepare for future challenges and increase the success of lower
socioeconomic individuals. Through this funding boost, it appears that the government is,
to a certain extent, placing equal priority upon elite and grassroots sports.
In summary, by recognising the importance of sporting participation, increasing infrastructure
funding and improving financial support for athletes, the Australian Government is, at least
to a degree, providing equal funding and recognition of elite and grassroots sport. However,
inequality of funding between elite and grassroots sports still persists. This is evident
through issues such as lack of infrastructure for grassroots sports, funding bias and less
regard for Australians of lower socioeconomic status. Therefore, despite recent initiatives,
the government does not currently prioritise funding for grassroots sports in comparison
to elite athletes. Due to this disparity, there is an evident need for greater equity in the
Australian Government’s expenditure on sport.
30
The full document, including the reference list is available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/PEanalysis (accessed November 2020).
Copyright SACE Board of South Australia. Material has been adapted from ‘Assessment Type 2: Folio – Issues Analysis’.
Used with permission.
30 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Resource 5: Shifting from active to passive voice
and nominalisation
Paragraph versions Text deconstruction
Active voice
In a traditional community, a
number of people who are related
paint together. They believe it is
more important for the people to
paint together than for them to
finish the painting. When they act
together or paint together they
feel that they are regenerating the
natural world. People cooperate
and produce a painting that all
can see and this holds the society
together.
Verbs:
are related, paint, believe, is, to paint, to finish, act, paint, feel are
regenerating, cooperate, produce, can see, holds
There are lots of verbs (and thus a lot of clauses) so we can say this text
is grammatically complex. Most of the verbs are action verbs.
Nouns:
traditional community, a number of people, they, it, the people, them,
the painting, they, they, they, the natural world, people, a painting,
all (people), this
The subject nouns are underlined. The text is in active voice. The active
subjects are ‘people’. They do all the actions.
Passive voice
In a traditional community, an
artwork is painted by a number
of people who are related. It is
more important for the painting
to be done than for the painting
to be finished. Through their
acting together, the natural world
is regenerated and a painting that
can be seen by all is produced.
The society is held together by
this community activity.
Verbs:
is painted, are related, is, to be done, to be finished, acting together,
is regenerated, can be seen, is produced, is held
There are still a lot of verbs (and thus a lot of clauses) so this text is
also grammatically complex. Most of the verbs are action verbs in the
passive form.
Nouns:
traditional community, an artwork, a number of people, it, the painting,
the painting, the natural world, a painting, the society, this community
activity
The objects in the previous text have become the subjects. Passive voice
is used: the subjects (underlined) are having ‘actions’ done to them.
Nominalised
In a traditional community,
group collaboration is central
to painting activities. Group
membership is based on specific
kinship relationships. The act of
painting is more valued than the
final product since it is through
the act that there is regeneration
of the natural world. The essential
cooperation needed between
kin in the production of visual art
creates a subtle cohesion within
the society.
Verbs:
is, is based on, is, is, is, needed, creates
Nouns:
a traditional community, group collaboration, painting activities, group
membership, specific kinship relationships, the act of painting, the final
product, the act, a regeneration of the natural world, the essential
cooperation needed between kin in the production of visual art, a subtle
cohesion within society
The verbs in this text are fewer and mainly relating. We can say that the
text is grammatically simpler because there are fewer clauses, often only
one per sentence. However the nouns are much more complex with
some formed by nominalising verbs in the first text, eg collaboration,
relationships, regeneration, cooperation, production, cohesion. This
text is complex and dense in its vocabulary. Nominalising the action
processes has also allowed the author to remove the people as doers.
The Department for Education requests attribution as:
South Australian Department for Education | APRIL 2021
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP)
TARGETED STRATEGIES TO ACCELERATE SAE PROFICIENCY
VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
VERBS AND VERB GROUPS: INTRODUCTION 3
Vocabulary: expressing dierent processes 3
Action processes 3
Mental processes 3
Saying processes 4
Relating processes 4
Grammatical accuracy: control of the verb group and tense 4
Range and control of tenses 4
Simple tenses 5
Elaborated tenses 7
Elements and structure of the verb group 12
LEVELS 1–4 AND LEAPING TO LEVELS 5–6 15
LEVELS 1–4 16
1. Action processes for common actions 16
Commands – skip, jump, hop 16
Modals – can and cannot
16
Simple past tense – skipped, jumped, hopped 17
2. Relating processes to describe what things are and have 18
Simple past – was and had
18
Simple present – am/is and have/has 20
3. Mental processes to express likes and dislikes 21
Feelings – like and want 21
Feelings – don’t like and don’t want 21
LEAPING TO LEVELS 5–6 23
4. Action processes beyond everyday vocabulary 23
Present continuous and vocabulary expansion – am cooking 23
Simple present, simple past – go and went; visit and visited 24
Simple past, present and future tense – added, add, will add 25
5. Action and relating processes 26
Focus on actions – do/does/can do 26
Focus on relating – being and having 27
Focus on subject-verb agreement in simple present relating – is/are; has/have 28
Focus on subject-verb agreement in simple present action – live/lives 28
6. Mental processes and simple causing (made) 29
Feelings in response to events with reasons – made 29
Beyond liked/didn’t like 29
Simple past (happened) and past continuous (was happening) 29
Predicting using mental processes and simple future tense – I think it will 30
7. Multi-word verb groups: wanted to, tried to, liked to 30
8. Saying processes: simple past tense 31
2 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
LEVELS 5–6 LEAPING TO LEVELS 7–9 32
9. Process types and precise choices for shades of meaning 33
Four types of processes 33
Saying processes and characterisation 34
Action – shades of meaning for atmosphere and characterisation 34
10. Tenses and complex relationships of time 37
Dierent tenses in narratives 37
Simple past and past continuous (-ing ongoing) tenses 38
Simple past and perfect tenses 39
Present perfect 39
Past perfect 40
11. Process types and tense according to genre stage and purpose 41
Stages of a science report and patterns in process types and tenses 41
Mental processes – predicting and recording observations 42
12. Multi-word verb groups: details of timing and duration 43
13. Relating processes: expanding choices 44
Synonyms of ‘to be’ and ‘to have’ in descriptive reports 44
Moving beyond verb ‘to be’ and simple causing (made) in explanations 45
Grammatical changes when using a causal relating verb 46
14. Adding modals to persuade 48
LEVELS 7–9 LEAPING TO LEVELS 10–12 51
15. Action, mental and relating processes for precision and technicality 51
16. Saying and mental processes to incorporate other viewpoints 52
Direct and indirect speech and thought 54
Consideration of various viewpoints 54
17. Causal relating processes for more precise relationships of cause-eect 55
LEVELS 10–12 LEAPING TO LEVELS 13–14 57
18. Relating processes to express complex relationships 57
19. Verbs for interpreting and evaluating: showing and causing 58
20. Saying and mental processes to cite and attribute to sources 59
Critical literacy – identify balance and bias 59
Analysing who says what to identify balance and bias 60
Vocabulary choices that strengthen or weaken citations 60
Resource 1: Common irregular verbs in English 62
Resource 2: Example science report template 63
Resource 3: Analysis and commentary of Charlotte’s Web extract 64
Resource 4: Science investigation – model text 65
Resource 5: Spoken vs written explanation 66
Resource 6: Synonyms for written-like text 67
Resource 7: Statements for and against: logging 68
Resource 8: Verbs to express complex relationships 69
Resource 9: Substitutes for ‘said’ – attributing to/citing sources 70
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 3
VERBS AND VERB GROUPS: INTRODUCTION
Since a clause is a unit of meaning which expresses a message and must contain a verb, then developing
knowledge about and control of the verb group is the easiest and best place to begin developing students’
language proficiency at the group and word level.
(Rossbridge & Rushton, 2010)
There are 2 major aspects of verbs and verb groups to understand and develop, which—while distinct—are
often taught in conjunction:
• vocabulary to express dierent types of processes
• grammatical accuracy: control over the structure of the verb group and tense.
Vocabulary: expressing dierent processes
In early language development and in oral language, there is a tendency to use verbs to represent actions with a
focus on the concrete/physical world around us. As our language develops, and as we shift to written contexts—
where we cannot rely on gesture, body language, intonation and a shared context—we use verbs to reveal our
inner worlds of consciousness and to convey abstract relationships between our ideas. According to these
diering functions, verbs are used to represent 4 main types of processes:
• action or doing
• mental, including thinking, feeling, perceiving and sensing, to represent inner processes
• saying to represent interaction
• relating, including ‘being’, ‘having’ and ‘causing’.
The first 3 types represent some kind of ‘happening’, whereas the fourth expresses a ‘state’ or relationship.
Patterns of processes used in texts vary according to genre and register. Giving students a metalanguage to
talk about the types of processes used across a text enables them to better reflect on their language choices.
Action processes
Action (or doing) verbs are used in most texts and are a key feature of procedures, recounts and narratives
(Derewianka, 2011). They are concerned with the ‘goings-on’ in the physical world and the chosen symbol
represents dynamic action (like a cartoon ‘kapow’). While these verbs can usually be ‘acted out’, this is not
always the case. Some do not represent ‘physical activities’ that can be seen and mimed, eg She opened the
meeting by putting forward a motion to accept the resignation of the previous chair. It all happened so quickly.
As students develop their vocabulary, they are able to make more precise choices that may be more technical
and subject-specific or more creative and evocative, eg eat: digest, munch, crunch, nibble, gobble, devour, savour.
There is also a sub-group concerned with behaviour, usually human. These often refer to what our body does
and can indicate feelings, eg sleep, wake, breathe, laugh, cry, grin, sneer, stare, sni, snie, scream. It is not
necessary to draw the distinction with students in the earlier levels but may be helpful to do so at higher levels.
Mental processes
Mental processes represent inner processes: the ‘goings-on’ in our internal world. They are often referred to
as thinking and feeling, and can be represented by a thought cloud symbol. These verbs are key features of
recounts, narratives, persuasive and evaluative texts. Mental processes play a key role in helping a reader get
inside a character’s head, helping them to empathise with and to like or dislike characters
(Humphrey, Love &
Droga, 2011). They are also important in expressing points of view in persuasive texts.
There are several kinds of mental processes, though it is not necessary to distinguish between sub-categories
with students. The sub-categories are:
• thinking (cognition), eg believe, consider, decide, forget, hypothesise, imagine, know, ponder, wonder
• feeling (emotion and desire), eg adore, anger, detest, enjoy, fear, grieve, hate, like, loathe, love, pride, regret,
worry, crave, desire, need, hope, long for, wish, want
• perceiving or sensing (perception), eg hear, notice, observe, perceive, see, sense, smell, taste, witness.
4 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
Saying processes
Saying processes represent speech, dialogue or interaction and can be represented by a speech bubble
symbol. These verbs are key features of narratives and persuasive texts. In narratives, they can play a major role
in characterisation. In persuasive texts, they are important to add various voices, where what is said by interest
groups, stakeholders and experts can add weight to or challenge arguments. Saying verbs can be used to quote
(direct speech) or report (indirect speech).
Again, as students develop their vocabulary, they are able to make more precise choices that may be more
technical and subject-specific or more evocative, eg said: stated, reported, suggested, claimed, denied, shouted,
whispered, mumbled, grumbled, hissed.
Relating processes
Relating processes represent a relationship between 2 things or 2 pieces of information. They are sometimes
referred to as ‘being’ or ‘having’ verbs, since the most commonly used relating verbs are forms of the verbs ‘be’
and ‘have’. These verbs are used to tell us what something is or has and represent a ‘state’ rather than a ‘happening’.
Relating processes are used to:
• identify, name and classify, eg Kangaroos are marsupials. Babies are called joeys.
• relate something being described to its description, eg Kangaroos have a small head. Their ears are big.
• simply state that something is/exists, eg There are three common species of kangaroo.
• express ownership, eg Billy has a pet kangaroo. The mother kangaroo had two joeys.
• relate a whole to its parts, eg The diet of a kangaroo consists of grass, leaves, bark flowers and fruit.
• link a cause to an eect, eg Billy’s pet kangaroo makes him happy. Droughts often cause increased numbers
of kangaroos on the outskirts of town. The bushfires led to the deaths of many kangaroos.
While all texts are likely to contain relating processes because they are used to name, classify and describe,
they are key features of descriptions, reports and narratives, particularly in orientations where readers are
introduced to characters and settings. Relating processes that express ‘causing’ are key features in higher level
explanations and persuasive and evaluative texts.
As students move up the years of schooling, they are also required to understand and use synonyms to express
more precise and technical relationships, including relationships of cause and eect expressed through verbs
and verb groups. See Resource 8: Verbs to express complex relationships.
Grammatical accuracy: control of the verb group and tense
This aspect of verbs and verb groups can also be broken down into 2 parts, which are, again, interrelated:
• range and control of tenses
• the elements of the verb group, including negatives, modals and multi-word verbs.
Range and control of tenses
In English, all processes (expressed through verbs or verb groups) have 2 major components:
• content meaning – dierent types of processes convey meanings about events (what’s happening?) or states
(what are the relationships of being, having or causing?)
• tense – events or states are anchored in time through tense. This can be seen as a form of grammatical meaning.
For example, the base form of the verb ‘to walk’ is ‘walk’ and has the meaning of travelling by foot. The action
of walking is then located in time by using, changing and/or adding to that base form (walk, walked, will walk,
am walking; was walking, will be walking, have walked). The base form of the verb is used in commands, eg
Walk to the corner. Be careful. Do not walk on the grass. Commands have no tense.
Across languages, tense—or the timing of events—is expressed dierently. Languages vary in:
• the number of tenses. Some have more and others fewer than English and yet others have no tense but
instead use other markers to show changes in time.
• how tenses are expressed grammatically. Some show tense with a change to the noun; some change the
verb in ways other than by adding suxes; and in some languages, tense changes are dependent upon the
gender of the subject.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 5
It is not surprising then that:
The expression of tense in English verb groups can be particularly challenging for students who speak
English as an Additional Language or Dialect (EAL/D), especially in written texts, and this needs to be
modelled and taught explicitly.
(Humphrey, Droga & Feez, 2012:30)
Providing opportunities for comparisons to students’ L1 is an important part of explicit teaching.
In the LEAP Levels, tenses are categorised as either simple or elaborated as shown in the table below, which
provides a brief overview of tenses in LEAP.
Simple tenses
Simple present tense walk swim
Simple past tense walked swam
Future tense will walk will swim
Elaborated tenses
Continuous
present continuous is walking is swimming
past continuous was walking was swimming
future continuous will be walking will be swimming
Perfect
present perfect have walked have swum
past perfect had walked had swum
future perfect will have walked will have swum
Simple tenses
Simple present tense
Simple present tense uses the base form of the verb (except for the verb ‘to be’). However, in this tense, the
verb changes dependent on whether the subject is ‘I’, singular or plural as shown below. While knowing these
is innate for English speakers, EALD learners may have trouble remembering the subject/verb agreement and
may also have problems hearing and distinguishing the verb endings in spoken language.
Changes in form for subject-verb agreement
Subject Most verbs be have
I
walk
am have
watch
Singular: he, she, it
walks
is has
watches
Singular (one person): you
Plural (2 or more people or
things): we, you, they
walk
are have
watch
Simple present tense is used for: Timeline visual Examples
• repeated habitual actions (always/
usually)
xxxxxxxxxxxx
past present future
now
I walk every day/most days.
• mental processes related to immediate
present (now)
x
past present future
now
I want some soup.
• generalisations that are true at any point
in time (timeless present)
past present future
now
Crabs walk sideways.
Kangaroos are mammals.
• an (ongoing) state or mental process
She is a principal.
I like apples.
6 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
In more spoken-like or informal contexts, the simple present tense can also be used for:
• an action scheduled in the future: He graduates next year.
• ‘dramatic’ narrating of past events: And then, this car comes around the corner.
• ‘commentary’/right now: Dinner is ready. And there she goes. She jumps the hurdle.
Simple past tense
Simple past tense is formed either by:
• adding an -ed ending to the base word (verbs that follow this pattern are called regular verbs)
• changing the base word (these are called irregular verbs).
Many commonly used verbs are irregular verbs: see Resource 1: Common irregular verbs in English for a list
of examples.
Below are some examples of simple past tense, including regular, irregular and the verb ‘to be’. ‘To be’ is irregular
and has 2 past forms, dependent on the subject.
Changes in form for past tense
Regular base + ‘ed’ Irregular – changed base Irregular verb ‘to be’
walk – walked begin – began singular: was
watch – watched come – came plural: were
Simple past tense is used for: Timeline visual Examples
• events that happened at a particular
point in time in the past
x
past present future
now
I walked this morning.
She graduated in 1995.
• habitual actions in the past
xxxx
past present future
now
I walked daily for three years.
• generalised events that no longer occur
past present future
now
Several species of dinosaurs
walked on two legs.
• ongoing states in the past My mother was a telephonist.
• ongoing mental processes in the past As a child, I hated dinosaurs.
• mental processes in relation to
information in the present
I knew you could do it.
I thought you were going out.
• persuading/hypothesising outcomes
of future actions, using ‘conditional if’
xxx
past present future
now
If you walked for 20 minutes
a day, you would feel much
better.
Simple future tense
Simple future tense is typically
1
formed either:
• by adding ‘will’ before the base word: will walk, will be (as in the table below). This is typically a more formal use.
Changes in form for formal future tense
Add ‘will’ before… … base
will walk
will watch
OR
1
Future tense can also be formed using ‘about to’ before the base word, to indicate an event that is soon to happen: I am about to
walk out the door.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 7
• by adding present verb ‘to be’ and ‘going to’ before the base word, eg I am going to walk (as in the table
below). This is more informal language.
Changes in form for informal future tense
Subject Add present verb ‘be’ … … and ‘going to’ before … … base
I am
going to walk
Singular (he, she, it) is
Singular (you)
Plural (we, you, they)
are
Simple future tense is used for: Timeline visual Examples
• an event that will happen at a
particular point in time in the future
x
past present future
now
I will walk this evening.
I am going to walk this evening.
She will graduate in July.
• mental processes in the future
(commitment to the mental process
or prediction, promise or threat)
I will think about it.
I am going to forget that.
You are going to love this film.
You are going to regret that.
• habitual actions in the future
xxxx
past present future
now
She will work until she is 99.
• ongoing states in the future
past present future
now
She will be 8 next year.
I will be sad if she leaves.
We are going to be sorry to see
her go.
Elaborated tenses
In English, it is possible to express more complex relationships of time through elaborated tenses. These express
other aspects of time, such as whether the process was continuous (ongoing) and/or whether the process is
completed before another process.
Continuous (ongoing) aspect – ‘ing’ form
The continuous (ongoing) aspect, sometimes called progressive, is used to convey an unfinished process going
on over a length of time. The ongoing process may:
• be happening in the present (present continuous)
• have been happening in the past (past continuous), or
• be happening in the future (future continuous).
The continuous aspect is formed by adding:
• ‘ing’ ending to the base (the present participle), and
• part of the verb ‘to be’ as an auxiliary.
The base, sometimes called the ‘main verb’, carries the content meaning. The auxiliary carries the tense and
locates the event or state in time. The ‘eyes’ in the figures aim to reinforce that this is where I am ‘seeing’ the
action/state unfolding.
The form of the verb ‘to be’ (the auxiliary) is chosen according to:
• when the process is/was/will be going on, and
• whether the subject is singular or plural, since the verb must always agree with the subject.
8 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
Present continuous
Changes in verb form for present continuous
Subject Add present verb ‘be’ to ‘ing’ (present participle form)
I am
walking
being
having
Singular (he, she, it) is
Singular (you)
Plural (we, you, they)
are
Present continuous is typically used for actions or states happening now to say what we are doing, being or
having. (The table below shows that we are witnessing it unfolding now.)
Present continuous is used for: Timeline visual Examples
• actions/states (ongoing) now:
right now
past present future
now
I am walking right now.
I am watching you.
I am being silly.
I am having a chai.
• recent or temporary habitual actions
(ongoing) now: currently
I am walking every day now.
I am being more kind to myself.
I am having only one coee a day.
Present continuous can also be used to refer to plans for a future action, eg We are leaving tomorrow morning.
This use tends to be in more spoken interactions in response to a question or proceeding an invitation. For
example, ‘I am walking this evening’ in response to someone asking, ‘Did you go for a walk this morning?’ or
before asking someone if they want to join you.
In Standard Australian English (SAE), the present continuous is usually not used to express mental processes.
Instead, the simple present tense is used. For example, what do you think, want, sense now?
Comparison of present continuous forms for mental processes in Standard and Non-standard Australian English
SAE Non-SAE
I know a lot of English now.
I understand you.
I want my English to improve.
I hear/see you.
I am knowing a lot of English now.
I am understanding you.
I am wanting my English to improve.
I am hearing/seeing you.
One exception is the verb ‘feeling’, where either form could be used: I feel unwell. I am feeling unwell.
Past continuous
Changes in verb form for past continuous
Subject Add past verb ‘to be’ to ‘ing’ (present participle form)
I was
walking
being
having
Singular (he, she, it) was
Singular (you)
Plural (we, you, they)
were
Past continuous is typically used to talk about an unfinished process that was happening for a length of time
in the past. As the eyes indicate in the table below, it is as though we have gone back in time; have rewound
a video and pressed play to see the action/state unfolding.
Past continuous is used for: Timeline visual Examples
• an interrupted process: to say that
something was happening (had been
ongoing) in the past, when something
else happened
x
past present future
now
I was walking when you rang.
I was being silly and I fell over.
Just as I was having a chai, the
boss came in.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 9
• habitual actions (ongoing) in the past
but no longer happening
2
x
past present future
now
I was walking every day until I
sprained my ankle.
Before Easter, I was being very
disciplined.
I was having six coees a day.
Future continuous
Changes in verb form for future continuous
Subject Add future verb ‘will be’ to ‘ing’ (present participle form)
I
will be
walking
being
having
Singular (he, she, it)
Singular (you)
Plural (we, you, they)
Future continuous is typically used to talk about an unfinished process that will be happening for a length of
time (will be ongoing) in the future. As the eyes indicate, it is as though we have fast forwarded into the future
and can see the action/state unfolding.
Future continuous is used for: Timeline visual Examples
• indicating when a future process
will start:
> how long before event
> when a habitual action/state
will start
(start)
past present future
now
I will be having a chai around
9.00am.
I will be being more kind to myself
from now on.
• predicting what will be happening
when something else happens
x
past present future
now
I will be walking when you ring.
• habitual: actions (ongoing) into
the future:
> conditional on something
> for what purpose
> until when
x
past present future
now
I will be walking every day if the
weather is fine
I will be walking every day to
improve my fitness
I will be being more kind to
myself until this is over.
Perfect (completed) aspect
The perfect (completed) aspect is used to convey a finished process that has been completed before a
subsequent process (event or state), whether that process is in the present, past or future. It is formed by:
• adding part of the verb ‘to have’ as an auxiliary. The auxiliary indicates the point in time from which the event
is being viewed. The form of the verb ‘to have’ is chosen according to the tense and the subject.
AND
• using the past participle form of the base verb (referred to as ‘-ed/en’ in the LEAP Levels):
> either the ‘-ed’ form: adding ‘ed’ ending to the base of regular verbs, or
> the ‘-en’ form: changing the base of irregular verbs to form the past participle. (‘-en’ is used because it
is a common ending for the past participle form of irregular verbs: however, it is not the only form.) See
Resource 1 for examples of commonly used irregular verbs and their past participle forms.
While, in Standard Australian English (SAE) this form of the verb needs to be accompanied by an auxiliary, many
dialects (eg Aboriginal Englishes) use the past participle without an auxiliary, eg I seen a lizard. My dad gone to
the city. I been for a run. I done my homework.
2
This can also be done using ‘used to’: I used to walk every day. This form is more common in spoken,
informal contexts.
10 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
Present perfect
Changes in verb form for present perfect
Subject Add present verb ‘to have’ to ‘ed/en’ (past participle form)
I have walked
written
been
had
Singular (he, she, it) has
Singular (you)
Plural (we, you, they)
have
Present perfect is typically used for actions or states that have happened in the past but are relevant to the
present. Compare the dierence in these sets of past actions and states:
• simple past: They arrived. They were here.
• present perfect: They have arrived. They have been here.
In the simple past, the event is simply finished, whereas those in the present perfect are both finished and
relevant to the present. In the present perfect, there is either a sense of these things having happened recently
– having just happened, or perhaps unexpectedly or earlier than expected and catching us unaware – that they
have already happened.
The eyes in the table below indicate that I am looking back from the perspective of the present and see the
action/state is completed.
Present perfect is used for: Timeline visual Examples
• actions/states (completed in the past)
but relevant to the present
x
past present future
now
They have walked to the bus.
I have written a reference for you.
• completed before – already happened
or relevant to the present
I have walked to the shops before.
• recent or temporary habitual actions
relevant to the present now: currently
xxx
past present future
now
I have walked every day this week.
I have drunk only one coee a
day for the past month.
• recent or temporary habitual state in
the past and relevant to the present:
now
past present future
now
I have been awful and I’m sorry.
I have had a headache all morning,
but it’s finally gone.
• to say how long a current state has
being going on: when it started
(start)
past present future
now
I have been awake for hours.
I have had a headache since this
morning.
Past perfect
Changes in verb form for past perfect
Subject Add past verb ‘to have’ to ‘ed/en’ (past participle form)
I
had
walked
written
been
had
Singular (he, she, it)
Singular (you)
Plural (we, you, they)
Past perfect is typically used to talk about a process that was completed before another event or state in the past.
Again, the eyes in the figure below indicate that I am looking from the perspective of the past (the video is
rewound) and I can see that the action was completed (indicated by x) before another action/event occurred
(indicated by x).
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 11
Past perfect is used for: Timeline visual Examples
• a process completed before
another: to say that something
happened in the past, before
something else happened
x x
past present future
now
I had walked to the shops and then
I realised I didn’t have my wallet.
I had been careful but I still tore it.
I had written most of it when my
computer crashed.
• how long an ongoing action
had been happening before it
was stopped/noticed
x x
past present future
now
I had watched you for 20 minutes
before you saw me.
• habitual actions (completed)
in the past but no longer
happening – more recent or
relevant to the present than
simple past
xxxx
past present future
now
I had walked every day until I sprained
my ankle.
• habitual state (completed) in
the past but is no longer true
– but more relevant to present
than simple past
(end point)
past present future
now
Before Easter, I had been very disciplined.
Up until that point, I had had two cars.
Future perfect
Changes in verb form for future perfect
Subject Add ‘will’ and ‘have’ to ‘ed/en’ (past participle form)
I
will have
walked
written
been
had
Singular (he, she, it)
Singular (you)
Plural (we, you, they)
Future perfect is typically used to talk about a process that will be completed in the future. Again, the eyes in
the table below show that I am looking from the perspective of the future (fast forwarding): I can see that the
action has been completed before another event.
Future perfect is used for: Timeline visual Examples
• indicating when a future process will
be completed
x x
past present future
now
I will have had a chai by 11.00am.
On January 1st I will have been
an Australian citizen for 3 years.
• predicting what will have happened
before something else happens
x x
past present future
now
I will have walked to the jetty by
the time you ring.
• habitual: actions (ongoing) into the
future – conditional on something
x
past present future
now
I will have walked every day this
year, if things go to plan.
Perfect continuous aspect
It is also possible to combine both the perfect (completed) aspect and the continuous (ongoing) aspect.
This combination is used to convey a process that continued for a length of time up to a point when it was
completed or ended.
12 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
Changes in verb form for various perfect continuous tenses
Tense Subject
Add auxiliary
‘to have’ to
mark tense
Add auxiliary
‘to be’:
been …
… to ‘ing’ (present participle form)
present
perfect
continuous
I have
been
walking
writing
being
having
Singular (he, she, it) has
Singular (you)
Plural (we, you, they)
have
past perfect
continuous
I
had
Singular (he, she, it)
Singular (you)
Plural (we, you, they)
future perfect
continuous
I
will have
Singular (he, she, it)
Singular (you)
Plural (we, you, they)
Tense
Perfect continuous
is used for:
Timeline visual Examples
present perfect
continuous for
an action or
state that has
been happening
for a length of
time up to the
present
• a specific action
or state
(start)
past present future
now
I have been walking for 20 minutes.
• a habitual action
or state
(start)
past present future
now
I have been walking every day for
a year.
She has been having far too much
coee.
past perfect
continuous for
an action or
state that had
been happening
for a length of
time up to a
point in the past
• a specific action
that had been
going on until
another event
x
past present future
now
I had been walking to the bus
when you rang.
• a habitual action
or state that had
been ongoing
until another
event
x
past present future
now
I had been walking every day
before I sprained my ankle.
I had been having headaches
regularly for years until I stopped
eating dairy.
future perfect
continuous
for an action
or state that
will have been
happening for a
length of time
up to a point in
the future
• a specific or
habitual action
or state that will
have been going
on until another
event or point
in time
x
past present future
now
I will have been walking for 20
minutes by the time I get to the jetty.
In another 10 minutes, I will have
been waiting for 3 hours.
I will have been walking every day
for 2 years tomorrow.
I will have been having lessons for
3 years next week.
Elements and structure of the verb group
Modals
In addition to the auxiliaries that carry tense, there are auxiliaries that add meanings about modality. Many
auxiliaries can make more than one modal meaning.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 13
Summary of modal meanings
Modal meaning Typical modals used Examples show modal is first element in group
ability can, could I can skip. I could not whistle when I was six.
probability
may, might, will, would,
can, could
I will be late. I may be late. I might have finished.
obligation
must, ought to, should,
have to, need to
I ought to be leaving now. I should have left earlier.
permission
may (formal), can, could
(everyday)
You may go. You can take one with you.
Negatives
Any process can be negated by adding ‘not’ to mean, for example, that:
• an action was not done
• something was not said or not thought
• a person or thing is not or does not have something, such as in a description.
How the negative is formed depends on whether:
1. the verb group contains an auxiliary, or
2. there is no auxiliary and
a. the main verb is the verb ‘to be’ or ‘to have’, or
b. the main verb is any other verb.
1. If the verb group contains an auxiliary then ‘not’ is placed after the auxiliary (after the initial auxiliary if there
is more than one) as shown below:
I cannot skip
3
. I could not whistle. I could not keep going. He could not have seen me.
I will not be late. I am not going. I might not be going. I should not have been walking home.
I had not had lunch. I should not have left. I would not have been late. I need not have worried.
2a. If there is no auxiliary but the main verb is the verb ‘to be’ or ‘to have’, then ‘not’ can be placed after it:
• am not, is not, are not, was not, were not
• have not, has not, had not.
2b. If there is no auxiliary and the main verb is not the verb ‘to be’ or ‘to have’, then the verb ‘to do’ is used.
The form of ‘to do’ is chosen according to tense and the subject.
Negatives in simple present and past tense
Subject: simple present tense present ‘to do’ auxiliary add ‘not’ to base verb
I do
not
walk
write
think
Singular (he, she, it) does
Singular (you)
Plural (we, you, they)
do
Subject: simple past tense past ‘to do’ auxiliary add ‘not’ to base verb
I
did not
walk
write
think
Singular (he, she, it)
Singular (you)
Plural (we, you, they)
The base form of the verb is used for both present and past tense because the auxiliary carries the tense.
Negatives are often contracted, eg didn’t, isn’t, aren’t, wasn’t, weren’t, couldn’t, hadn’t, mightn’t, mustn’t.
Will and shall have irregular negative contractions: won’t and shan’t.
3
When ‘not’ is placed after the auxiliary ‘can’ it forms a compound word: cannot, eg I cannot skip.
14 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
Multi-word verbs
In English, all processes (expressed through verbs or verb groups) have 2 major components:
• content meaning
• tense, which anchors events or states in time.
In all the examples used thus far, the content meaning has been expressed through one verb. In multi-word
verbs, the content meaning is expressed by either:
• a phrasal verb
• more than one verb.
Phrasal verbs
In phrasal verbs, the process consists of a verb and another word (typically a preposition) that work together
as one unit of meaning. The meaning is usually dicult to predict from looking at the verb and preposition
separately. A phrasal verb can often be replaced by a single word – a more precise or formal verb:
• Can you look it up in the dictionary? (find)
• I give in. (surrender)
• Put up your hand. (raise)
• They put out the fire before it could spread. (extinguished)
Usually, the elements of the phrasal verb can be split without a change in meaning: They put the fire out before
it could spread; Put your hand up.
With phrasal verbs, if the additional word is removed, the meaning of what was happening is either lost or
changed and/or the sentence is grammatically wrong or incomplete, eg:
Phrasal verb = verb + preposition Preposition removed = changed and/or incomplete meaning
I give in I give
Can you look it up in the dictionary? Can you look it in the dictionary?
They put out the fire on the hill. They put the fire on the hill.
This is in contrast to a circumstance, which can be removed and the sense of what was happening remains
intact, although we have lost extra details of the circumstances, eg:
• What did you do when you heard the sound? I looked up. I looked. The process is the same, but we have
lost details of where.
• Do you donate to charity? I give in small ways, when I can. I give, when I can. The process is the same but
we have lost details of how.
Compare the function and meaning of the 2 examples:
1. He ran down the jetty. What did he do? ran. Where did he run? down the jetty.
2. He ran down a pedestrian. What did he do (to the pedestrian)? He ran (them) down.
With these 2 examples, we can also use another test. If the preposition begins a circumstance, then it can be
moved as a unit, without changing the meaning or the grammar. If the preposition is part of phrasal verb, this is
not the case:
• He ran down the jetty. Down the jetty he ran. (Clause rearranged but meaning and grammar unchanged)
• He ran down a pedestrian. Down a pedestrian he ran. (Clause rearranged but meaning changed/lost)
• He ran down a pedestrian. A pedestrian was run down by him. (Clause rearranged with same meaning but
changed grammar – passive voice
4
).
More than one verb
In these multi-word groups, an additional verb is added to express:
• timing or duration: began to dig, started to dig, kept on digging, continued to dig, stopped digging,
finished digging
• attempt: try to dig, tried to finish, attempted to stop
• mental process that preceded an event or reveal feelings about it: decided to go, wanted to go, loved to go,
hoped to go, enjoyed going, forced to go, resisted going, aimed to go, planned to go
• a causative relationship: made cry, helped hold, caused to fall.
4
See the Glossary for the definition of passive voice.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 15
LEVELS 14 AND LEAPING TO LEVELS 56
LEVELS 1–4
Learning sequence Language in focus Genres
1. Action processes for
common actions
• commands – skip, jump, hop
• modals – can and cannot
• simple past tense – skipped,
jumped, hopped
• procedures, protocols
• descriptive statements
• narratives
2. Relating processes to
describe what things are
and have
• simple past – was and had
• simple present – am/is and have/has
• narratives
• descriptions
3. Mental processes to
express likes and dislikes
• feelings – like, want and don’t like,
don’t want
• subject-verb agreement in present
tense
• descriptive statements
LEAPING TO LEVELS 5–6
4. Action processes beyond
everyday vocabulary
• present continuous and vocabulary
expansion – am cooking
• simple present, simple past: go and
went; visit and visited
• simple present, past and future tense
– added, add, will add
• commentary on procedures
• personal recounts
• science investigation reports
5. Action and relating
processes
• simple present tense
• actions – do/does and modal can
• relating – is or has
• subject-verb agreement – is/are;
has/have; live/lives
• descriptive reports
6. Mental processes and
simple causing (made)
• simple past and past continuous
• feelings in response to events with
reason
• beyond like/didn’t like
• simple present and future tense for
predicting
• responses
• predictions in reading narratives
and in science
7. Multi-word verb groups:
wanted to, tried to, liked to
• expressing attempt or feelings about
processes
• narratives
• personal recounts
8. Saying processes: simple
past tense
• expressing interactions • narratives
Suggested mentor texts
Books (bolding indicates that the sequence is based around this text) Learning sequence
Allen P (2003) Grandpa and Thomas, Penguin Australia 1
Allen P (2006) Grandpa and Thomas and the Green Umbrella, Penguin Australia 1
Ashley B (1992) Cleversticks, Dragonfly Books, US 1, 7
Hutchins P (1993) Titch, Aladdin Paperbacks 2
Lester A (1985) Clive Eats Alligators, Lothian Children’s Books 1, 3
Morgan S & Erzinger T (2014) A Feast for Wombat, Omnibus Books 1, 5
Vaughan M (1984) Wombat Stew, Scholastic Australia 5
Lester A (2006) Rosie Sips Spiders, Lothian Children’s Books 6
Lester A (2006) Tessa Snaps Snakes, Lothian Children’s Books 6
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
16 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
LEVELS 14
1. Action processes for
common actions
Commands – skip, jump, hop
Metalanguage
At lower levels, it is not necessary for students to
use the metalanguage, such as verb or process. The
aim is to develop understanding through functional
questions and identify patterns in language using
colour or shapes, eg processes: colour-coded or
circled
in green.
Command verb forms
Commands use the base form of the verb: the same
form that is used in simple present tense. However,
commands are not considered to be present tense:
they are seen as tenseless.
Engage
In a daily fitness lesson, model the language of the
actions, using commands, eg:
• First, everyone skip to the line. What did I ask you
to do? Students respond: ‘skip’.
• Now, everyone jump to the line. What did I ask you
to do? Students respond: ‘jump’.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Display written instructions for the fitness lesson
with accompanying visuals showing the actions.
• Read the text together and discuss its purpose:
procedure, giving instructions.
• Reread: in each step, students listen for and do the
action.
• At the end of each step, ask: ‘What word told you
what to do?’; ‘What was the action?’
• Students locate the word and circle it green. Say:
‘This is the word that tells us the action’. Explain
that the green circle is like the green trac light,
telling you to go, to move or do something. We
use circles because circles can roll and move
easily, eg:
>
Skip
to the line.
> Jump
on the spot 10 times.
>
Hop
on one foot 5 times.
>
Run
back to the start.
• Think, Pair, Share: students look for patterns, share
with a partner and discuss with another pair why it
might have this pattern.
• Groups share. Make clear to all that the pattern
of the action (verb) fits with the purpose of a
procedure: it tells you what to do.
• Students compare this pattern to the pattern in
L1 texts.
5
• Create an anchor chart of action words and add to
it as students do other activities: colour, underline,
write, read, cut, paste, draw.
• Play Simon Says as a class. In small groups,
students practise listening for and using action
processes. Add new actions to the anchor chart.
Links to other genres
Suggested literature mentor texts written in simple
present tense:
• Grandpa and Thomas and Grandpa and Thomas
and the Green Umbrella – narratives
• Clive Eats Alligators and other books in this series
– descriptive statements.
Extend the learning
Either of the next 2 sequences are logical next steps:
• Modals – can and cannot (keeping the grammar
the same – present tense, but changing the
content and vocabulary), or
• Simple past tense – skipped, jumped, hopped
(keeping to the same content and vocabulary but
changing the grammar by changing the tense).
Modals – can and cannot
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Display and read We Can Do Anything!
6
or
Cleversticks which focus on what people can do.
• Students listen for words that tell what they can
do, then do the actions with you. Ask: ‘What can
we do?’, eg wiggle. Model and encourage a full
clause response, eg We can wiggle. Highlight the
action word. Be sure to circle ‘can’ as part of the
verb group, eg We can wiggle our hula hoop hips.
• Brainstorm things students can do outside at
recess or lunch and make a class book. Model/
jointly construct the first page, eg At recess or
lunch, we can skip. Add a visual. Assign each
action to an individual or pair to create their page.
5
Refer to activities in ‘Project 8: Procedure texts’ in Heugh, French, Armitage, Taylor-Leech, Billinghurst & Ollerhead (2019).
6
Clyde JA (2013) We Can Do Anything!, Unite for Literacy, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Clyde2013 (accessed October 2020)
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 17
• Students make their own books about things they
can do on the weekend. Use Think, Pair, Share to
brainstorm things that they can do, adding new
actions to the anchor chart for students to refer to.
Links to other curriculum areas
In mathematics, during measurement:
• involve students in an activity where they have to
reach up to a point on the wall
• measure the diering distances
• model and jointly construct individual student’s
sentences orally: I/Jonas can reach to … 120
centimetres
• repeat activity using negative. I/he can’t reach to …
130 centimetres
• students work in pairs to speak, then write sentences
about themselves and their partner. Scaold with
sentence frames as needed.
But could be used to join these sentences, creating
compound sentences.
Extend the learning
• Use a story such as Cleversticks or A Feast for
Wombat to focus on how everyone has dierent
things that we can do and can’t do
7
. If the language
is too complex for your students at this stage, the
story could be ‘told’ more simply using the visuals.
• Ask: ‘What can Ling Sung do that the others can’t
do?’ Model/encourage stretching responses,
beginning with ‘Ling Sung can...’ Record sentence
and then model a sentence about the others, eg:
> Ling Sung can use chopsticks.
> The teachers and other children can’t use
chopsticks yet.
• Identify things that various children in the story can
do but which Ling Sung can’t do yet, eg:
> Terry can tie his shoe laces. Ling Sung can’t tie
his shoe laces yet.
> Manjit can write her name. Ling Sung can’t write
his name yet.
> Sharon can button her coat perfectly. Ling Sung
can’t button his coat perfectly yet.
• Students tell/show one ‘clever/special’ thing that
they can do and make a class book. Students make
their own books about things they can do and one
thing they can’t do yet.
• Model using patterns above to reflect on learning
and set learning goals, eg I can use action verbs;
I can’t use past tense yet.
Question prompts
Always attempt to have your question prompt match
the tense in focus, eg using a story example:
Past What happened here?
The fox chased chickens.
What did I/we/you/they/it do?
What happened?
Present What happens here?
The fox chases the chickens.
Yes, all foxes chase chickens.
What do I/we/you/they do? What does it/
he/she do? What happens?
This is using the simple present tense,
as timeless present expresses things that
happen habitually (always/usually).
Future What do you think will happen here?
The fox will chase the chicken.
What will I/we/you/they/it do? What will
happen?
Simple past tense – skipped,
jumped, hopped
Engage
• Use a familiar context to focus on past tense,
eg fitness routine, craft activity, daily classroom
routines.
• After an activity, ask: ‘What actions did we do when
we were outside?’ Students recall the actions and
record them in the order they did them.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Write actions in command form to be revealed one
at a time. One pair shares the first action they did.
Reveal the first verb.
• Model the action in the past tense and record it in
a sentence next to the original command.
• Students listen and look for what has changed in
the verb as you reread the sentence. Circle the
action green. Students turn and talk to share their
observations.
• Draw attention to the -ed change to the verb
ending, showing past tense to indicate the action
is finished. Point out that the original sentences
were commands that were telling you what to
do (now) and the new sentences are statements
telling what we did (in the past).
• Explain that not all verbs have an -ed ending to show
past tense. Others change the word, eg go to went.
Students may be able to provide other examples.
7
Cleversticks can be used to focus on ‘can’t do yet’ as part of developing a growth mindset, whereas A Feast for Wombat
is more concerned with how we each have personal strengths.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
18 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
See also the note on ‘Irregular past tense verbs (no
-ed ending)’ on page 25 and Resource 1: Common
irregular verbs in English.
• Ask students to share whether verbs change in
their L1 to indicate tense.
Many languages such as Chinese, Indonesian,
Malaysian and many Creoles don’t have verb tenses
but show timing in other ways. If possible, students
share with same L1 students or a BSSO before sharing
with the class.
• Pairs share the next action they did outside and
repeat/model the past tense ending:
>
Skip
to the line. We
skipped
to the line.
> Jump
on the spot 10 times. We
jumped
on
the spot 10 times.
>
Hop
on one foot 5 times. We
hopped
on
one foot 5 times.
>
Run
back to the start. We
ran
back to the start.
• If students provide ‘runned’ instead of ‘ran’, point
out that they have used the ‘-ed’ ending rule/
pattern, which is a sign of being a good learner.
Remind them that some verbs don’t follow that
rule. Say the word ‘ran’. Students repeat the word,
listening for and looking for the dierence.
• Reread sentences in the past tense together,
listening for the ending (pointing out the ‘ed’, ‘t’ and
‘d’ sounds) or the changed form for irregular verbs.
Pronunciation of ‘-ed’ ending
Explicitly teach EALD students that the ‘-ed’ ending in
English is pronounced 3 dierent ways, depending on
the sound that it follows:
• ‘ed’ (or ‘id’) after a ‘t’ or ‘d’: batted, needed
• ‘t’ after a ‘p’, ‘f’ ,‘k’, ‘s’, ‘sh’ or ‘ch’: stopped, laughed,
picked, missed, raced, washed, watched (It is the
sound, not the letter, eg ‘f’ sound at end of laugh.)
• ‘d’ after a vowel and all other consonants: played,
lived, grabbed, agreed.
Spelling and ‘-ed’ ending
Since the ‘-ed’ ending is pronounced in 3 dierent
ways, the spelling of the past tense of regular verbs is
not based on phonetics or sound, but on morphology,
where the ‘-ed’ sux indicates the grammatical element
of past tense. Teach spelling rules when adding a
sux, eg ‘ed’ by:
• doubling final consonant if the consonant follows
a short vowel sound, eg hop ➔ hopped, hopping
• dropping the final ‘e’ before adding sux, eg hope
➔ hoped, hoping.
• Students write or say an action sentence in both
a command form and a statement in past tense in
L1 for comparison. Listen, discuss and colour the
action words green in the written sentences.
• Create a timeline with the class, such as the one
below, showing past and present (you can add
future later). Add examples for all the action
processes you have built together on your wall
charts.
Past Present Future
finished – now not yet
already
happened
Yesterday
I skipped.
This morning,
before lunch,
I ran.
• skipped
• ran
Skip to the
line.
Run back.
• skip
• run
Tomorrow
I will skip.
Before I go to
bed, I will run.
• will skip
• will run
2. Relating processes to
describe what things are
and have
Simple past – was and had
Metalanguage
At lower levels, it is not necessary for students to know
and use the term relating process. You may wish to
expose students to the term, but it should always be
used alongside examples and/or the symbol, since it
is their function and use that is important.
Question prompts
• Is this a sentence that tells us that something
happened, or is it describing something? How do
we know?
• Does this sentence tell us what someone was
doing or what someone was or had?
• What word has the author used between the
person/thing and the description?
Engage
• As a class, read a picture book that describes
someone such as Titch.
8
• Explain that you are going to describe someone
and what they had.
8
Titch is also used to focus on simple sentences as key units of expressing ideas in Exley B & Kervin L (2013).
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 19
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Revise understanding of words that tell us the action:
> they are verbs
> they can be about actions in the past, present
or future
> we circle them green.
• Explain that there are other kinds of verbs that aren’t
actions. They don’t tell us what happened, but they
help us describe things. They tell us what someone
or something was or had.
• Introduce the symbol
showing that they ‘relate’
the person or thing and the description.
• Display and reread the first few pages, highlighting
the processes as you go through:
1. Titch was little.
2. His sister Mary was a bit bigger.
3. And his brother Pete was a lot bigger.
• Read the first sentence together and ask the
students:
> ‘Who is being described here?’ Titch (if students
have learnt about participants, highlight red)
> ‘What is the word describing them?’ ‘What was
Titch?’ little (as above, highlight red)
> ‘What word is relating the person (Titch) and
the description (little)?’ was. Circle (or use
connecting arrow symbol) in green.
• Repeat with sentence 2, writing the questions on
a chart as you go.
• Analyse sentence 3, involving students in asking
and answering the questions.
• Display the next 3 sentences:
4. Pete had
a great big bike.
5. Mary
had
a big bike.
6. And Titch had
a little tricycle.
• Read sentence 4. Ask: ‘What is dierent about
sentence 4?’ Students turn and talk and then share:
‘It isn’t describing Pete, it’s telling us what he had –
describing something he had/owned.’
• Ask the students:
> ‘Who is being talked about/who had/owned
something here?’ Pete (as above, highlight in red)
> ‘What did they have/what did they own?’ a great
big bike (as above, highlight red)
> ’What word is relating or linking the person (Pete)
and the thing (bike)?’ had. Circle had in green.
• Repeat with sentence 5, involving students in asking
the questions and writing them up.
• Pairs use the questions to analyse sentence 6.
• Point out that in SAE, we need to have a verb in
every message/idea/clause/sentence. When we
are describing, even though nothing is happening,
we still need a verb. State this is not true in many
other languages. Ask students if it is true in their L1.
If they wanted to say ‘Titch was little’, would they
need a verb?
• Make sets of cards for the 3 sentence parts (person,
relating verb, and what they were or had):
Who? Relating verb
What?
(what she/he
was or had)
Titch was little
Pete had
a great big
bike
• In pairs or small groups, students match cards to
create and record sentences. Create games using
a dice with options for 6 sides:
> who?
> was/had
> what?
> who?
> was/had
> what?
• Students draw (or bring in photos of) themselves
and/or family members.
• Show a photo of yourself and/or family from the
past. Model writing sentences to describe what
you and your family were and what you had in the
past: I was six. I had two little brothers. I was the
biggest. Andrew was a bit bigger. Robin was little.
I had short hair. I had two teeth missing. Andrew
and Robin had very short hair.
• Students orally tell a partner about themselves/
family members and what they had.
• Students write sentences to describe their picture.
A class book could be compiled.
Verbless clauses in other languages
In many Asian and Aboriginal languages, you can
construct clauses without verbs, to name, describe
or denote possession. This is also true of Arabic, but
only in present tense. Examples are provided for
Aboriginal languages of Pitjantjatjara/Yankunytjatjara
(PY); Adnyamathanha (Adnya) and Narungga (Nar).
However, here too, there are restrictions on these
verbless clauses. If you want to add other information,
such as time or location, then verbs are needed.
Continued on page 20.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
20 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
Naming in some Aboriginal languages
PY: Ngayulu ini Dan-nga.
Adnya: Ngai mityi Dan-anha.
Nar: Ngayi mityi Dan.
‘I–name Dan.’ (Here ‘I–name’ is a noun unit.)
Describing in some Aboriginal languages
PY: Annie-nya pulka.
Adnya: Annie-nha ngarlaakanha.
Nar: Annie dhawara.
‘Annie big.’ (The ending added to the name in PY
and Adnya does not function as a verb, but as part
of the noun.)
Possessing in some Aboriginal languages
PY: Bryan-nga ngayuku mama.
Adnya: Bryan-anha ngatyu vapi.
Nar: Bryan ngayidjali.
‘Bryan my father.’
Simple present – am/is and
have/has
Engage
• Create and read a simple text about a ‘fictional’
student, for example, ‘I am Anh’, using ‘I am’ and
I have’ sentences or ‘This is Ali’, using ‘He/she is’,
‘He/she has’ sentences.
9
• Tell students they are going to learn to write a little
book about themselves for the class library.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
Use the activities outlined above for past tense
adapting to present tense as in the brief explanation
provided below. If you have already introduced
relating verbs in past tense, many of these could be
skipped or simply revised.
• Revise understanding of words that tell us the action
and explain that there are other kinds of verbs that
aren’t actions. They don’t tell us what happens, but
they help us describe what people or things are or
have. Introduce the symbol
.
• Read the title of the book together and explain
(revise) that ‘I’ is the word (pronoun) we use to
talk about ourselves. Ask: ‘Who is talking about
themselves in this book?’ Students can answer this
in multiple ways, such as pointing to the picture
and saying: the girl, Anh.
• Display and reread the first few I am or He/She is
sentences, highlighting the processes:
1. I am Anh. (naming)
2. I am a girl. (describing)
• Ask functional questions and colour-code.
• Discuss the pattern of these sentences.
Point out that, in SAE, we need a verb in every
sentence, even when we are describing, and nothing
is happening. Ask students if it is true in their L1. If
they wanted to say, ‘I am tall’, would they need a verb?
(See the previous teacher note on ‘Verbless clauses
in other languages’.)
• Display and discuss the pattern in some I have or
He/She has sentences.
3. I have brown hair.
4. I have green eyes.
• Discuss dierences and make explicit that we can
describe, saying what I am or what I have.
• Analyse these sentences, involving students in asking
the questions.
• Make cards for the 3 sentence parts of the (person,
relating verb and what they are or have):
Who? Relating verb
What?
(what she/he
was or had)
Anh is a girl
I am a boy
Ali has black hair
I have green eyes
If you use both ‘I’ and student names, you will need
to teach/revise subject-verb agreement for verbs
‘to be’ and ‘to have’:
I am have
He/she/it is has
We/they/you are have
• Students work in pairs or small groups to match
cards, create and record sentences.
• Model writing a simple description of yourself
using: I am and/or I have as sentence starters.
• Students create mini books or ‘Who am I?’ cue
cards about themselves.
9
See also texts available from Western English Language School:
Reilly R (2020) I am Jen, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/WELSjen (accessed December 2020)
Reilly R (2020) I am Mohammed, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/WELSmohammed (accessed December 2020)
Adisa C (2020) Our Class, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/WELSourClass (accessed December 2020).
All digital copies are free to download (epub files) and print copies can be purchased.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 21
3. Mental processes to express
likes and dislikes
Feelings – like and want
Links to other curriculum areas
Activities suggested here could be linked to health:
healthy eating or hobbies. Links could be made to
mathematics by creating graphs to show who eats
what for breakfast or who likes/doesn’t like each fruit.
Students can write sentences to explain what the
graph shows, eg Six students in our class like cold
rolls. Only one person likes hot dogs.
Suggested alternative text for older students
Our Class
10
: this text has one student per page with 3
sentences for each student. The third sentence states
an activity the student likes to do, eg This is Ali. He
lives in Sunshine. He likes soccer. This is Sara. She
lives in St Albans. She likes dancing.
Engage
• Read the first 2 pages of Clive Eats Alligators, which
looks at what 6 children have for breakfast, using
images, replicas and/or real samples. (There is a
picture and one simple sentence in the present
tense for each child.)
• Students turn and talk, in L1 if possible, sharing
what they have for breakfast. Students draw, find
in the classroom/via internet, or bring from home
images, replicas or real samples.
• Generate a list of the breakfast foods. Create a
display, with images and accompanying L1 names.
• Display named images of the 6 children from the text.
Provide images of the breakfasts and the words on
cards. Read through the text again, stopping at the
end of each sentence. Students listen and match
each child with the image of their breakfast food.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Explain that students will learn to say and write
sentences about foods they like. Introduce a new
type of verb that shows us what someone thinks or
feels, using a thought cloud.
• Revisit the images of the 6 children and the matched
cards and model inserting the word likes to complete
the sentence, eg Frank likes muesli. In Clive Eats
Alligators, likes is only used for Rosie (‘has’ or ‘eats’
is used for the other children) but for this activity
use likes for each child.
• Teach/revise subject-verb agreement in present
tense and create a chart:
Subject-verb agreement in simple present tense
Who/what? Verb
one person or animal
(he, she, it)
likes
wants
I or singular (you)
like
want
2 or more people or
animals (we, you, they)
like
want
• In pairs, students ask/say what they like for breakfast
using the list of foods generated. What do you
like for breakfast? I like … for breakfast. Repeat for
lunch/dinner.
• Students engage in role plays (home/shop) to
practise asking/saying what they want: What do
you want for breakfast? I want some toast, please.
What do you want to buy? I want a banana, please.
Links to other genres and curriculum areas
Similar activities can be done in response to characters
in stories.
11
Feelings – don’t like and don’t want
• Introduce the negative form using the 6 children
from the text. Use both the full and the contracted
versions: Nicky likes bananas for breakfast. She
doesn’t like sausages. Nicky does not like sausages.
I like eggs for breakfast. I don’t like muesli for
breakfast. I do not like muesli. (The full form is
usually only used for emphasis, so model this with
your intonation and stress.)
• Add a third column to your chart. Students practise
in pairs saying what they don’t like:
Subject-verb agreement in simple present tense
Who/what? Verb Do not/Does not
one person
or animal
(he, she, it)
likes
wants
doesn’t like
doesn’t want
I or singular
(you)
like
want
don’t like
don’t want
2 or more
people or
animals (we,
you, they)
like
want
don’t like
don’t want
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
10
Available from Western English Language School: Adisa C (2020) Our Class, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/WELSourClass
(accessed December 2020). Digital copies are free to download (epub files) and print copies can be purchased.
11
See also Evaluative language 3 ‘Everyday vocabulary to judge characters’.
22 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
• Bring in a range of fruit, representing the cultures
in your class, eg quandongs, bush banana, dragon
fruit, dates, figs. Students turn and talk in L1 and
then SAE to name the fruits they recognise.
• Cut up one of the varieties of fruit, saying its name
and having students repeat it.
• Ask for volunteers to try the fruit and say if they
like it or don’t like it. Pass the fruit around so that
everyone can try it. Students tell a partner if they
like it or not.
• Create a display of fruits with images and labels in
SAE and L1. Students work in pairs to ask/say what
they like and don’t like, eg:
> quiz, quiz, trade: each student has a card with
a picture of a fruit. In pairs, A takes their card
and asks B: Do you like X? B then asks A with
B’s card. The pair then trade cards and find a
new partner to quiz, quiz and trade.
• If an appropriate learning goal for your students,
introduce/revise the conjunctions ‘and’ to join
similar ideas and ‘but’ to join contrasting ideas
and have students practise orally in pairs:
> I like apples and I like bush bananas.
> I like dragon fruit but I don’t like grapes.
• Have students draw/select pictures of 4 to 6
fruits and write sentences (simple or compound
as appropriate). These could be made into mini
books. Students could work in pairs and write
a book about their partner’s likes and dislikes.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 23
LEAPING TO LEVELS 56
4. Action processes beyond everyday vocabulary
Present continuous and vocabulary expansion – am cooking
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Find or write a procedure for a learning area activity, eg cooking, science experiment.
• Carry out the activity as a demonstration, with you giving a commentary (Chop the parsley: ‘I am chopping
the parsley’) and video-record it.
• Show the video: students match actions from the procedure with the visual.
• Create a chart like the one below and record the actions from the procedure in the left column:
Action
(command)
what to do
Visual
What am I doing?
one person = me
What is happening here?
What is she/he doing?
one person – she or he
What are you/we/they doing?
More than one person
chop
I am chopping.
She is chopping.
He is chopping.
You are chopping.
We are chopping.
They are chopping.
mix
I am mixing.
She is mixing.
He is mixing.
You are mixing.
We are mixing.
They are mixing.
pour
I am pouring.
She is pouring.
He is pouring.
You are pouring.
We are pouring.
They are pouring.
stir
I am stirring.
She is stirring.
He is stirring.
You are stirring.
We are stirring.
They are stirring
• Watch the video again to ask: ‘What am I doing here?’ Explain that, in order to answer this, we need to change
the verb from a command telling me what to do to saying what I am doing. Write these bolded words on
the board and have students turn and talk: how has the verb changed?
• Rewatch segments of the video, asking ‘What am I doing here?’ Provide the sentence starter: I am …
Pairs record the word they think will complete the sentence. Share and record the sentences in the
‘What am I doing?’ column.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
24 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
• Students ask each other ‘What are you doing?’
They mime the actions and say what they are
doing, eg I am mixing.
• On the chart, add 2 more columns to record how
the auxiliary changes in the present continuous
(ongoing) to agree with the subject. Students
discuss changes they notice. Make explicit that we
choose am for I; is for one person; are for more
than one person; and are for you, even when ‘you’
means only one person.
• Create various matching activities, games and/or
cloze activities for students to practise orally and
in writing where appropriate.
• Reinforce in various contexts throughout the day,
such as writing the date on the board, ask: ‘What
am I doing/what are you doing?’ ‘I am writing the
date at the top.’
• Read texts with clear visuals to teach and reinforce
vocabulary beyond the everyday and present
continuous. Stop and ask questions from the chart.
• Use texts from the Unite for Literacy site. For
example, Play Clay
12
has a range of precise
action verbs involved in cooking and making with
playdough. Play Ball
13
has precise actions used
when playing with balls, some specific to particular
sports. Students can select their L1, if available, and
then hear each page narrated in English and L1.
Simple present, simple past –
go and went; visit and visited
Engage
• As a class, read a book that describes a shared
experience, such as We Love the Library!
14
• Explain that this book is written in the present
tense because it describes what they always do
when they go to the library. Together you are going
to change the text to the past tense to recount
what they did when they went to the library last
week. Along the way, you will also look at other
vocabulary choices to expand vocabulary beyond
the everyday.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
Adapt the text, as explained below, and display in the
left column of a table.
Adapting the text
The original text from the book has been adapted
(see the next column) in line with the students’ level
so as not to distract from the learning intention, by:
• excluding the third sentence from the book ‘She is
always glad to see us!’
• changing ‘mom’ to ‘mum’
• changing subordinating conjunctions as and while
to and.
‘To read’ has not been highlighted in the last example
because the focus is on verbs that tell us what
happened. Verbs that answer questions: What do the
children do? or What did the children do? will change
tense. ‘To read’ will not change tense.
Original text in present
tense (always)
New text in past tense
(finished – last week)
1. My brother and I
go
to the library every
week.
(Alternative: My brother
and I
visit
the library
every week.)
My brother and I
went
to the library yesterday.
(Alternative: My brother
and I
visited
the library
every week.)
2. First we
say
hello to
the librarian.
(Alternative: we
greet
the librarian)
First we
said
hello to the
librarian.
(Alternative: we
greeted
the librarian)
3. I
read
to my brother
and he
looks
at the
pictures.
I
read
to my brother
as he
looked
at the
pictures.
4. Then I
choose
my
own books to read.
Then I
chose
my own
books to read.
5. I
read
to my mum and
my brother
plays
.
I
read
to my mum and
my brother
played
.
6. We
listen
to stories
and
play
games
together on the
computer.
We
listened
to stories
and
played
games
together on the
computer.
7. Last we
borrow
books
to read at home.
Last we
borrowed
books
to read at home.
• Reread the adapted original text, stopping at the
end of each sentence. Students identify the words
(verbs) that tell us what happens: what the children
‘do’. Circle them in green.
• Model changing the first sentence to the past
tense and read the sentence. Students look and
listen for what has changed. Students share what
they noticed with a partner. Call on someone to
share and circle the changed verb.
• Elicit/suggest an alternative verb for go, eg visit
and rewrite sentences using it in present and past.
Students circle verbs and identify the change:
added -ed ending. Discuss this ‘regular’ way of
forming past tense and the fact that many common
verbs are ‘irregular’: don’t follow this pattern.
12
Allred D & Ollikainen (2013) Play Clay, Unite for Literacy, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/PlayClay (accessed October 2020)
13
Bremer B (2012) Play Ball, Unite for Literacy, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/PlayBall (accessed October 2020)
14
Hartman H (2013) We Love the Library!, Unite for Literacy, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/LoveLibrary (accessed October 2020)
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 25
Irregular past tense verbs (no -ed ending)
Only 2 of the verbs in the adapted original are regular
and use the -ed ending for the past tense form (look/
looked, play/played). Many commonly used verbs,
such as the other 4 here, are irregular verbs which
do not have -ed endings for the past tense form (go/
went, say/said, read/read, choose/chose). See also
the ‘Extend the learning’ section, in the next column,
on irregular past tense verbs.
• Focusing on sentence 2, students tell you what
word needs to change and watch you change the
verb form to jointly construct new sentences in
past tense and then with alternative greet.
• In sentence 3, point out that we can hear the
change from ‘read’ present tense to ‘read’ past
tense, but the spelling doesn’t change’. (Tricky!)
• Students work in pairs to construct new sentences
4 and 5 on mini whiteboards. Emphasise they are
‘having a go’ because sometimes changes to the
verb are tricky: they don’t all have -ed endings.
• Students hold up their mini whiteboards. Select a
pair who has sentence 3 correct. Share and write
their sentence on the board, circling the verb.
Students check and highlight their own verb.
• Select a pair who has written ‘choosed’ for
sentence 4. Ask who else has written ‘choosed’.
Say this shows they are good learners who notice
patterns and have followed the pattern of adding
the -ed ending to show past. Explain that this is
another verb that doesn’t follow the pattern. Call
on a pair who has written ‘chose’ or simply supply
that word. Write the sentence, circling the verb.
Students check (change) and highlight their verb.
• Explain that the verbs in sentences 6 and 7
follow the rule of adding -ed to show past tense.
Students construct new sentences individually and
check with a partner, before sharing as a class.
• Display a list of the verbs from the text in present
and past forms.
• As a class, visit your local library. On your return,
students share in small groups what happened and
record the ‘words’ that tell what they did (actions).
• Groups check for any new words not on the
displayed list of verbs and add these to the list:
ensure students have the correct past tense form.
• Groups check that they have the actions/events
sequenced correctly.
• Jointly construct an opening sentence such as
‘Today, our class went to the library’. In small
groups, students write a recount of the visit.
Extend the learning
• Create word walls of commonly used irregular
verbs. Write words on separate cards. Begin with a
list of 10 most commonly used and then gradually
extend. Resource 1: Common irregular verbs in
English provides many examples.
• Reinforce through activities, eg:
> match base and past tense card
> insert correct forms in cloze activities
> group into those with similar patterns, eg ride/
rode, drive/drove; grow/grew, throw/threw;
keep/kept, sleep/slept; put/put, cut/cut
> create sentences (oral/written) using the irregular
past form, eg in pairs, student A picks up a card
and uses the base form: Everyday, I ride to
school. Student B uses past tense form: You
rode to school this morning.
> quiz, quiz, trade: a warm up activity where each
student has a card with base word on one side
and past form on the other. In pairs, A reads
their base word, B gives irregular past, A checks/
corrects. B then quizzes A with B’s card. The pair
then trade cards and find a new partner to quiz,
quiz and trade.
• Students reflect and recall 3 things they did at
recess, lunch or over the weekend and share orally
with a partner. Create lists of activities with images.
• Students identify and sequence the words/pictures
that match what they did.
• Create and display a list of the verbs in present and
past forms.
• Model giving a short talk using an opening sentence
such as ‘On the weekend, I did a lot of things’.
Write and display your text.
• Call on a student to tell what they did and jointly
construct a recount.
• Using the 2 model texts, in pairs students write what
they or their partner did.
Simple past, present and future
tense – added, add, will add
Context
Science reports are a macro-genre made up of
several dierent sub-genres. Dierent tenses are
used in various parts (sub-genres) and so they oer
a unique opportunity to focus on tense changes in
verbs. Select or design a science unit of work with a
written science report as a model text. For example,
use Project 9
15
, which contains many illustrations of
how L1 can be used in the teaching sequence.
15
‘Project 9: Science – growing grass heads’ in Heugh et al (2019).
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
26 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
• Build students’ vocabulary related to science
processes with a variety of activities, eg:
> say the action verbs as you demonstrate them
> students share L1 words for the actions (same
L1 groups and/or with the class)
> students repeat (or mime) actions, repeating
the action verb in L1 and English
> display pictures of the actions alongside the
verbs in English and L1s on separate cards
> use the cards for matching activities and
classroom displays.
• Using verbs related to the topic, create a chart,
displaying verbs in past, present and future forms:
Base form used for commands
Past Present Future
finished – now or always not yet
already
happened
This morning
we did an
experiment.
• added
• drew
• filled
• grew
• placed
• measured
• recorded
Do the
experiment.
We do an
experiment
every week.
• add
• draw
• fill
• grow
• place
• measure
• record
Tomorrow
we will do an
experiment.
• will add
• will draw
• will fill
• will grow
• will place
• will measure
• will record
• Provide students with Resource 2: Example science
report template.
• Discuss tense changes according to the purpose
of each part and create an overview chart:
Part of a
science report
Purpose of
that part
Verb form
used
Method/steps
– what to do
Tells us what
we need to do
base form for
commands
How we will
make it fair?
Tells what we
will do to make
the test fair
future tense
Our results Tells what
we did; what
happened
past tense
Answer to our
question
Explains the
results; tells
what always
happens
present tense
• Cut up the sentences/dot points from the right-hand
column of Resource 2 and give one to each
student. Pin up headings for dierent parts of a
science report around the room. Students read
their sentence and place it under the correct
heading before comparing their choices with
others. Students justify their positioning, based on
tense or other language features.
• Remove verbs from the report to create a cloze.
Students insert the correct form of the verb and
justify with a partner.
• In subsequent experiments, involve students in
joint and independent constructions of sections
of a science report (or a complete one).
Timeless or habitual present tense
Simple present tense is sometimes called the timeless
or habitual present, as it is typically used to express
things that always/usually happen, rather than what is
happening now. In this tense, the verb ending changes
(add ‘s’ or ‘es’) if the subject is singular, so that the
verb agrees with the subject. See pages 5 to 7 for
more information about this and other simple tenses.
5. Action and relating processes
Focus on actions – do/does/can do
Engage
• Students listen to Moving at the Zoo
16
in L1 if
available and in English.
• Read the text together. Students mime the
dierent ways the animals move.
• Revise commonly used verbs of movement, eg
walk, run, jump, skip, hop. Build more precise
and specialised words related to the movement
of animals, eg crawl, fly, slide, waddle, sway.
• Create and display an anchor chart of relevant
movement verbs.
• Revise the use of can/can’t (see page 17 ‘Modals
– can and cannot’). Students say what they and
various animals can and can’t do, eg I can swim;
I can’t skip; It can run; It can’t fly.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Show the covers of 2 information texts that are
simple descriptive reports on an animal such as
Koalas and Kangaroos.
17
16
Clyde JA (2013) Moving at the Zoo, Unite for Literacy, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/MovingZoo (accessed October 2020)
17
These texts are available from Western English Language School at http://TLinSA.2.vu/WELSkangaroos and http://TLinSA.2.vu/
WELSkoalas where digital copies are free to download (epub files) and print copies can be purchased.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 27
• Explain that they are going to learn:
> about koalas and kangaroos
> about descriptive reports
> how to write sentences that describe animals
and tell what they do.
• Before reading Kangaroos, students Think, Pair, Share:
> their questions about kangaroos
> what they think they will find out in the book.
• Record questions and predictions.
• Read pages 2 to 29 (only reading the large print
at this point) with students listening to see if their
questions are answered.
• Ask students to indicate unfamiliar word/s and
explain key vocabulary as you go, eg using visuals
in the text and beyond, miming actions, using
gesture, simplifying or using synonyms. Students
provide L1 equivalents. (In a subsequent reading,
revise the key vocabulary using the glossary
supplied in the text and/or record in a class or
individual glossary, in SAE and L1s.)
• Students turn and talk about the questions they
heard asked and answered.
• Reread the text, stopping to:
> check if the questions in the book match their
questions, adding any new questions
> invite students to listen for answers to each
question and share them with a partner.
• Explicitly teach that verbs express dierent types
of processes. These do dierent jobs, so sentences
have dierent messages. In descriptive reports:
> some are about action: they tell us what happens
or what something does
> some are describing: they tell us what something
is or what it has.
• Write sentences from Kangaroos on separate strips
of card. Mark 2 areas on the floor or on the board/
wall. Label the 2 areas: ‘Telling what the animal does/
can do’ and ‘Describing the animal’.
• Read one sentence strip at a time. Model by
identifying if it is a doing sentence or a describing
sentence: ask students to visualise whether the
animal is moving/doing something or standing still.
Alternatively, ask them to mime actions which will
indicate this is a doing sentence: if it is a describing
sentence, students won’t be able to mime the
sentence. Instead, invite them to point to a part
of their body. Make clear that this is a describing
sentence: explain that pointing to part of your
body, is like the arrow on a labelled diagram. The
is/was works like the arrow to relate the thing and
its description.
• Pairs of students read a sentence strip together
and decide where it should go. Call on pairs to
share their sentence and place it in the correct
area, giving a simple reason.
Comparing fiction and non-fiction texts
In fiction books, animals are often depicted with
human-like qualities, eg they speak and have human-
like thoughts and feelings.
• If students have already learnt about mental and
saying processes, make explicit that sentences
in a descriptive report:
> describe the animal: tell us what
the animal is or has: relating
> tell what happens: tell us what
the animal does/can do: actions
> don’t tell us what the animals
are thinking or feeling
> don’t tell us that animals are
saying things.
Suggested picture books as mentor text
Wombat Stew and A Feast for Wombat can be used
to learn the names of various Australian animals;
to compare fiction and fiction texts; and to locate
and build vocabulary about bodies and movement.
A Feast for Wombat can be used to identify what
animals can do. Wombat Stew can be used to
examine how choices of action verb paint a picture
to help the reader visualise how animals move and
to give clues about the characters. For example,
Platypus ambled up the bank; Waltzing out of the
shade of the ironbarks, came Emu.
Focus on relating – being and
having
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Students focus on the describing sentences using
are and have and identify and discuss any patterns
they see. Sort the sentences into 2 sub-groups: are
and have.
One exception is are called. If students are not sure
where it goes, it can be left aside, or you can tell
them it goes with ‘are’ because we could just say,
‘Baby kangaroos are joeys’: it’s a synonym.
• Display a large picture of a kangaroo and 2 joeys.
Discuss with students the diering roles of:
> the ‘are’ sentences that name and classify the
animal: they tell us what the animals are; what
they are called; and what kind of animal they
are. Model and jointly construct, writing simple
naming sentences underneath the picture:
These are kangaroos. They are marsupials.
These are joeys. They are baby kangaroos.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
28 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
> the ‘have’ sentences tell us about the parts of
kangaroo. We could use them to draw and label
a picture of a kangaroo. Provide pairs with a
picture of a kangaroo to label as you/they read
the ‘have’ sentences.
Singular or plural to refer to a species
18
Some texts use ‘the kangaroo’ or ‘a kangaroo’ to refer
to the class of animal, eg The kangaroo is a marsupial;
A baby kangaroo is called a joey. Others, like the mentor
texts used here, use the plural ‘kangaroos’. Initially,
try to ensure that your question prompts, and any
sentences used are about plural ‘kangaroos’ for several
reasons to:
• reinforce that the information is about all kangaroos
• avoid having to change verb forms/endings to
agree with plural vs singular subjects (see subject-
verb agreement, below)
• limit the dierent pronouns used: they, their, them.
• Read ‘have’ describing sentences from a book
about another animal. Students listen, visualise and
draw the animal to guess what it is (use Koalas or
other animal reports that have clear descriptions
and easily recognisable features). Students share
their guesses with a partner in L1 and SAE.
• Once the class has identified the animal, reread the
sentences. Students label their drawings.
Focus on subject-verb agreement
in simple present relating – is/are;
has/have
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Discuss whether the book Kangaroos is just giving
us information about the kangaroos in the pictures
or whether it is about all kangaroos. Make explicit
that descriptive reports don’t always use the plural.
Briefly revisit Moving at the Zoo. Students look for
the patterns in this book, eg ‘a seal’, pointing out
that this doesn’t mean only one seal, it means any
seal/all seals. (See the note above.)
• Provide a range of reports on animals. Students
look for examples of the 2 patterns: use of plural:
‘baby kangaroos’ or singular: ‘a baby kangaroo’.
• Display 2 pictures, one with one kangaroo and
another with 2. Provide 2 labels: This is a kangaroo.
These are kangaroos. Display and read 2 large
versions of the labels. Students discuss with a partner
which label goes with which and why. Students
share their thinking. Discuss: the plural ‘s’ on
kangaroos: ‘this’ (singular) and ‘these’ (plural),
‘is’ (singular) and ‘are’ (plural).
• Create and display anchor charts of questions and
responses:
What is this? What are these?
This is a … These are …
It is a … They are …
• Model asking and answering questions about
classroom objects, pictures of animals, and pointing
to dierent parts of the body. In small groups,
students practise asking and answering.
• Use similar activities to teach and practise: Kangaroos
have, A kangaroo has, They have, It has.
• Create cards as in the table below (the rows are
not necessarily aligned). Students sort cards and
make sentences for oral and written practise.
Who?
Relating
verb
What?
A kangaroo is
a marsupial
marsupials
Baby kangaroos are
a joey
joeys
Mother kangaroos has fur
A mother kangaroo have a pouch
A baby kangaroo is called a long tail
Kangaroos are called strong back legs
• To support students moving to Levels 5–6, model
and practise alternative relating verbs, such as ‘are
called’ and ‘look like’, eg Kangaroos have long ears.
They look like rabbit ears.
Focus on subject-verb agreement
in simple present action – live/lives
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Give each group of 3 or 4 students a set of statements
about what various animals do. Students sort
statements into 2 groups: those with a plural noun
for the animal and those that use ‘a’ and a singular
noun, eg:
What do these animals do?
plural (more than one) singular (one only)
Kangaroos live in the
bush.
A kangaroo kicks and
fights.
Koalas eat gum leaves. A kangaroo eats grass,
leaves, bark, flowers
and fruit.
Baby koalas drink milk
in their mother’s pouch.
A joey drinks milk in its
mother’s pouch.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
18
See Cohesive devices 1 ‘Pronouns referring to animals and things’ for ideas to teach/revise pronouns and Nouns and noun groups
sequences 4 and 5 for ‘Who am I?’ and other activities focused on describing through noun groups.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 29
• Students find the first verb in each sentence, circle
it green and then discuss any patterns they can see
before sharing as a class.
• Co-construct a class explanation about subject-
verb agreement in present tense with examples, eg:
When we are talking about what always happens,
we need to choose the right verb ending to match
the noun. When the noun is singular the verb needs
an ‘s’ on the end, eg change Koalas eat gum leaves
to A koala eats gum leaves.
• Display sentence pairs with singular and plural nouns
where the verb is preceded by the auxiliary ‘can’.
Students look and listen to the verbs, then turn and
talk about what they notice: that the verb ending
doesn’t change when ‘can’ is used, eg Kangaroos
can kick; A kangaroo can kick.
Verb ending: spelling patterns
Teach the spelling patterns of:
• adding ‘-es’ after ‘ch’ (watches), ‘sh’ (washes), ‘s’
(buses) ‘ss’ (misses), ‘x’ (fixes), ‘z’ (waltzes) and after
‘o’ (does, goes)
• dropping y and adding ‘-ies’ (fly/flies, carry/carries)
except if the y is preceded by a vowel, in which
case simply add an ‘s’ (enjoy/enjoys).
6. Mental processes and simple
causing (made)
Feelings in response to events with
reasons – made
• Students draw and write sentences about a part
of the story they liked/didn’t like.
• Discuss that we often like or don’t like parts of a
story because of the feelings we have.
• Revise words that name (or show) common feelings:
sad (cry), happy (laugh), scared, afraid, excited, angry.
19
• Model asking ‘why?’ and answering with a simple
sentence as a reason, eg I didn’t like it when Old
Tom made a big mess in the bath. It made me angry.
I liked it when the wolf fell down the chimney. It made
me laugh. I didn’t like it when the wolf hued and
pued because he made the house fall down.
• In pairs, students practise adding a reason to their
liked/didn’t like sentences orally and in writing.
• Read/review another story. Students name a feeling
they had while listening and match it to an event
in the story (using pictures from the story or a
story map).
• Display and model, using the sentence frame: I felt
… when …, eg I felt scared when she met the wolf.
• In pairs, students practise creating ‘felt’ sentences
orally and in writing.
These activities could be extended using vocabulary
beyond like/didn’t like as below.
Beyond liked/didn’t like
• Read the double-page ‘Favourite Foods’ from
Rosie Sips Spiders. Ask: ‘What does Nicky like
to eat?’
• Have students look at the page and ask: ‘Which
word tells us that she likes spaghetti?’ – loves.
Discuss how this mental/feeling verb diers in
meaning and eect to using likes.
• Look at the page again and locate 2 other feeling
verbs (enjoys, likes). Discuss dierence in meaning
and eect of using enjoys.
• Students choose their 3 favourite foods. Visually
represent on a page or poster 3 sections as below.
Students draw and record sentences about what
they love, enjoy and like eating. (This is also
scaolding the use of multi-word verbs: love
eating; enjoy eating; like eating.)
I love eating … I enjoy eating … I like eating …
• Read the double-page ‘Dislikes’ in Tessa Snaps
Snakes. Point out and record on a chart, the feeling
verbs expressing dislike, ie hates, doesn’t like, can’t
stand, doesn’t care for and loathes. Discuss the
dierences in meaning and eect. Repeat the
activity above with students drawing and writing
sentences for foods they don’t like, hate, can’t stand.
Simple past (happened) and past
continuous (was happening)
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• View a short narrative. Construct a story map
and record the key events in a chart asking ‘What
happened?’, like column 1 on page 30.
• Replay a key event in the story. Ask: ‘What was
happening here?’ Students listen and look for
changes to the verb as you model and display the
new sentence in column 2. Students turn and talk
to share their observations of the sentences.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
19
See also Evaluative language 2 ‘Beyond common, everyday language to express feelings’.
30 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
Simple past and past continuous tenses
in a narrative
What happened?
(simple past)
What was happening?
(past continuous)
The three little pigs
left home.
The three little pigs
were leaving home.
The first pig built a
house of straw.
The first pig was building
a house of straw.
The wolf huffed and
puffed.
The wolf was huffing
and puffing.
The house fell down. The house was falling
down.
The little pigs put a pot
in the fireplace.
The little pigs were
putting a pot in the
fireplace.
• Play the next event and ask ‘What was happening
here?’ In pairs, students share and predict the change
to the verb, writing it on a mini whiteboard. Students
hold up boards to share. Record the new sentence.
Repeat until the pattern is clear.
If you have some sentences with a single character
as subject (wolf) and others with more than one
character as subject (little pigs), make explicit the
changes in the auxiliary (helper) from was to were.
• Students recall how they felt at various points in
the story.
• Provide a story map or timeline showing the key
events. Students choose 3 points of the story and
draw/match an emoticon to show their feeling at
that point.
• Provide a sentence frame: I felt … when … happened/
was happening. Model/jointly construct creating
sentences: I felt scared when the wolf was climbing
up the chimney. I laughed when the wolf fell into
the pot.
• Discuss why we would choose the simple past
for ‘when the wolf fell in the pot’, eg it happened
quickly. You laughed when it happened, not while
it was happening.
• In pairs, students practise creating ‘felt’ sentences,
orally and in writing.
• Revise using I liked/enjoyed/loved/didn’t like/
hated/didn’t enjoy it when using past continuous
and providing a simple reason in simple past tense:
I enjoyed it when the wolf was trying to blow the
brick house down. It was funny. I hated it when the
wolf was climbing on the roof. It was scary.
Predicting using mental processes
and simple future tense – I think
it will
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• During reading, ask: ‘What do you think will
happen next?’ Students share predictions first in
pairs, then with the whole class. If they respond
with the present tense ‘the fox catches a chicken’,
reframe and model using ‘I think’ and future tense
using ‘will’: ‘Yes. I think the fox will catch a chicken.’
Call for other predictions and reframe/model
‘You think the chicken will escape?’ Students
reformulate their response: Yes. I think the chicken
will escape.
• Display sentence starters. I think … will … ; I think
that … will …
• In pairs/small groups, students share predictions.
As students share with whole class, prompt and
scaold students to produce extended responses
using the model. Record responses so they can be
reviewed.
• During reading ask: ‘Do you think X will happen?’;
‘Do you think the wolf can blow this house down?’
Model 2 possible answers: Yes, I think he will blow
this house down. No, I don’t think he will blow this
house down. Students move to the left side of the
room if they think it will happen and to the right if
they don’t think it will happen. Call a student from
each side to model their response. The whole
group repeats it.
• In pairs, students read a story and ask and answer
‘What do you think will happen?’ I think … will …
Hypothesising in science
These activities can be adapted to hypothesising:
predicting what will happen in science, eg predicting
whether an object will float or sink, or whether it will
be attracted to a magnet. Extend to use the more
technical science term: I hypothesise that … will …
7. Multi-word verb groups:
wanted to, tried to, liked to
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Read a text with examples of multi-word verb
groups, such as Cleversticks.
• Display pages that use a repeated pattern, eg Ling
Sung tried to ... Ask: ‘What happened here? What
did Ling Sung do?’ Model (say and write) complete
response: ‘Ling Sung tried to tie his shoes.’
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 31
• Students help identify the words that tell what Ling
Sung did and circle in green:
Ling Sung tried to tie his shoelaces.
• Make explicit that the 3 words work together to tell
us what happened. They are a verb group.
• Discuss how ‘tried to’ aects the meaning. How
does the meaning change if we leave it out? How
does it aect the reader to know he tried to, but
couldn’t, instead of just saying he couldn’t do it?
20
• Find and record other things that characters ‘tried
to do’:
> Ling Sung tried to write his name. He tried to
button his jacket. He tried to tie his apron.
> All the children and the teachers tried to eat
their biscuits with chopsticks.
• Ask: ‘What have you tried to do?’ ‘What games/
sports/musical instruments have you tried to play?’
• Discuss examples of other verb groups in Cleversticks
that tell us what characters wanted or didn’t want
to do. Point out that these don’t tell us what
happened, they tell us how people felt.
• Display relevant pages and ask: ‘What words tell us
how Ling Sung was feeling?’ ‘What did he want or
not want?’ As above, recast/model full responses,
record sentences and identify verb group:
> He didn’t want to go to school. He wanted to
do the things he liked.
> Everyone wanted to learn how to use chopsticks.
• Display a picture of Ling Sung and draw a thought
cloud. Students place or rewrite the sentences in
the thought cloud. Discuss the eect on the reader
of knowing how Ling Sung was feeling.
• Students draw/find a picture of character from a
book, film etc, add a thought cloud, and include
what the character ‘wanted/didn’t want to do’
(past) or ‘wants/doesn’t want to do’ (present).
8. Saying processes: simple
past tense
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Students share what they know about verbs/
processes. Elicit that there are dierent types of
processes (not just action/doing) and display the
4 types and their associated symbol (see page 3
‘Vocabulary: expressing dierent processes’).
• Introduce and display learning intentions. Say, ‘We
are learning about saying processes so that we:
> know what a saying process (verb) is
> understand why they are used
> understand the meaning when we hear or
read them.
> can use them in our speaking and writing.’
• Reread or view a familiar short story in the past
tense, which includes dialogue.
• During reading, ask ‘What did X say?’ or ‘What did
X tell Y?’
• Display extracts of dialogue to model and jointly
analyse:
> ‘What did X say?’ (highlight the speech marks
and underline all that was said)
> ‘Where is the saying verb that tells us someone
spoke?’ (circle green)
> ‘Where are the words that tell us who spoke?’
(sayer – box red).
• In pairs, students ask the questions to analyse
other passages with dialogue.
• Create sets of saying verb cards; sayer cards; and
‘what was said cards’. Students create sentences
representing interactions between characters.
• Provide pictures of characters and speech bubbles.
Model and jointly construct, adding ‘what was said’
to the speech bubble, including a saying process in
the connecting stem.
20
‘Tried to’ is often part of a compound sentence in narratives. … tried to … but couldn’t or … tried to … and, eventually, could.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
32 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
LEVELS 56 LEAPING TO LEVELS 79
LEVELS 5–6 LEAPING TO LEVELS 7–9
Learning sequence Language in focus Genres
9. Process types and precise
choices for shades of
meaning
• four types of processes
• saying processes and
characterisation
• action: shades of meaning,
atmosphere and characterisation
• narratives
10. Tenses and complex
relationships of time
• dierent tenses
• simple past and past continuous
(-ing ongoing) tenses
• simple past and past perfect -ed
form
• narratives
11. Process types and tense
according to genre stage
and purpose
• stages of a report and patterns of
processes and tenses
• mental processes: predicting and
recording observations
• science investigation reports
12. Multi-word verb groups:
details of timing and duration
• details of timing and duration • science investigation reports
13. Relating processes:
expanding choices
• synonyms of ‘to be’ and ‘to have’
• beyond verb ‘to be’ and simple
causing (made)
• grammatical changes when using
a causal relating verb
• science investigation reports
• descriptive reports
• explanations
14. Adding modals to
persuade
• modals would and could • expositions: arguments
Suggested mentor text
Book (bolding indicates that the sequence is based around this text) Learning sequence
Blabey A (2009) Pearl Barley and Charlie Parsley, Penguin Australia, Picture Pun
21
9
Browne A (1986) Piggybook, Walker Books 9
Cheng C (2016) New Year Surprise!, National Library of Australia Publishing
22
9
French J & Whatley B, The Natural Disaster Picture Books: Flood (2011); Fire (2014); 9
Cyclone (2016); Drought (2018) Scholastic Australia
Vaughan M (1984) Wombat Stew, Scholastic 9
Wallace A (2016) Spark, Ormond, Victoria: Ford Street Publishing 9
White EB (1952) Charlotte’s Web, Harper Collins 9, 10
Zephaniah B (2001) Refugee Boy, Bloomsbury Publishing UK
23
9
Rippon S (1996) Fang Fang’s Chinese New Year, Omnibus Books 10
21
See teacher resource, which compares process types to highlight how the author reveals through verb choices the characters
of the 2 children: Reading Australia (nd) ‘Pearl Barley and Charlie Paisley’, teacher resource, Copyright Australia, available at
http://TLinSA.2.vu/raPearlBarley (accessed October 2020).
22
See teacher resource: Reading Australia (nd) ‘New Year Surprise!’, teacher resource, Copyright Australia, available at
http://TLinSA.2.vu/raNewYear (accessed October 2020).
23
See also sequence of learning 2 ‘Silhouette of experience: Verbs represent dierent processes’ in Exley, Kervin & Mantei (2015),
which has students place dierent processes on a silhouette of the boy.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 33
9. Process types and precise choices for shades of meaning
Dierent types of processes and shades of meaning in narratives
‘Narratives create a particular “world”. This world imitates the characteristics of the real world – things are happening,
people are thinking and feeling, listening and talking. So in a narrative, we would expect to find a great variety
of process types’
(Derewianka, 2020:45). Therefore, narratives are a very useful genre for exploring the use of
processes, where careful choices help readers visualise, build a sense of character, and create atmosphere.
Four types of processes
Revise
Revise verbs, making explicit:
• the 4 types of processes, displaying a chart with the symbols (see page 3 ‘Vocabulary: expressing dierent
processes’).
• the functional question prompts and use of green circles to identify them
• that verbs carry tense to anchor events and states in time.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Choose an extract that has a full range of process types, such as the first page of Charlotte’s Web.
• Identify the verbs/verb groups in the first half of the extract, ensuring that the entire verb group is identified,
eg negative ‘not’; modals; and auxiliaries that carry tense. Pay attention to contractions, eg ‘s going in
‘Where’s Pap going?’ and ‘s in ‘It’s very small and weak’. Discuss and model writing as ‘is going’: Pap is going
somewhere and as ‘it is‘: It is very small and weak.
• In small groups, students finish identifying verb groups. (Resource 3: Analysis and commentary of Charlotte’s
Web extract identifies verb groups in centre column and provides explanations and teacher notes in the left
column. The right column relates to learning sequence 10 ‘Tenses and complex relationships of time’.)
• Create an anchor chart of the 4 process types: make columns for action, mental, relating and saying
processes and include symbols. Students categorise verbs/verb groups under the columns.
• Sort processes by character, as in the table below. Students examine and discuss what the author’s choices
reveal about a character: What does the author want us to think/feel about the characters?
Classifying processes in Charlotte’s Web
Action
Saying
Sensing
Relating
Father is going
do away with
kill
stopped walking
said (gently) needs (an axe)
has decided to
is (right)
Fern were setting
pushed
ran
will have to learn to control
said
continued
shrieked
yell
sobbed
don’t see was (only 8)
Mother were setting
put
replied
said
mean
said
Pig were born
will never amount to (anything)
would probably die
is (a runt)
is (very small)
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
34 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
• Create images (body outlines or silhouettes) of
characters and search for verbs to paste around
the image, eg mental processes in head/heart area,
saying processes with speech bubble from mouth.
• Students use the anchor chart to plan a character
by selecting their traits/feelings and verb choices
that will show rather than tell this.
Saying processes and
characterisation
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Select an extract from a mentor text and make sets
of saying process cards used within the extract.
The examples below are from Charlotte’s Web.
• In groups of 2 or 3, provide students with a set of
cards. Students sort cards into 2 groups:
> processes telling you that someone spoke
> processes telling you ‘how’ they spoke and
giving clues about the speaker’s feelings:
Saying processes
tells you someone
spoke
tells you how they
spoke
said shrieked
replied yell
continued sobbed
A circumstance of manner: gently is used to tell how
Mr Arable spoke. Point out to students that this is
another resource that we can use to imply feeling
or character traits.
• Locate the section of the text where shrieked and
yell are used. Discuss the author’s choice:
> What do you think the author wants us to know
about Fern here?
> What would be missing if they just used ‘said’
or ‘asked’? What dierence does it make for us
as readers if we change it to: ‘Do away with it?’
asked Fern.
• Locate the section of the text where sobbed is
used. Students turn and talk to discuss what this
choice shows the reader.
• Create an anchor chart like the table above.
Generate a list of alternative saying processes that
students find in picture books and classroom texts.
• In small groups, students:
> check for meanings in English and bilingual
dictionaries
> add L1 equivalents alongside the words in the list
> create a glossary.
• Use the chart to create new cards. Use the cards
to reinforce meanings:
> select those that indicate volume and rank them
from softest to loudest: whispered, mumbled,
said, boomed, shouted, screamed
> match them to emotions: sad, scared, angry,
happy, proud
> match them to character traits: mean, kind,
shy, bossy.
Extend the learning
Wombat Stew:
• match saying verbs to animal, eg emu – fluttered;
lizard – hissed; echidna – bristled; koala – yawned
• create new animal character/s and saying processes
to match.
Piggybook:
Explore how the saying verbs change from the
beginning, where the father and sons are lazy and
bossy: called, demanded, to the end where they
become more pig-like in their behaviour and in the
images: squealed, grunted, snorted, snuffled.
Action – shades of meaning for
atmosphere and characterisation
Suggested mentor texts for action (and
relating) processes
New Year Surprise! and associated Reading Australia
teacher resource.
Links to other genres and curriculum areas
Flood, Fire, Cyclone and Drought can be linked to
Humanities and Social Sciences (HASS). Flood has
links to floods in Brisbane and Cyclone is based on
the Darwin Christmas 1974 cyclone. Students read/
view media reports of these events; compare the use
of verbs to describe the actions of water/wind and
turn the story into a news report.
24
Engage
• Select and share a text where the verb choices
show a level of precision that assists visualisation
or creates a sense of character and/or atmosphere,
eg Jackie French’s Flood.
• During reading, discuss what is happening (actions)
and who or what is the participant doing the action
(the doer). Elicit that the water is represented by
participants using many noun groups. The author
has written this book so that the water is the main
character. Some noun groups as participants refer
to people and some refer to objects that were
aected by the floodwater.
24
See also ‘Chapter 7 Meeting high challenge with high support in the middle years’, in Dutton, D’Warte, Rossbridge & Rushton
(2018). This uses French’s Fire and Wallace’s Spark to explore verb and other language choices in writing.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 35
• Examine how the author’s choices of verbs create
a sense of character and atmosphere, building
vocabulary to support students’ reading and writing.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Create anchor charts with functional grammar
prompt questions for processes and participants,
which are the focus here, eg:
Clause functional grammar prompts
What’s happening?
Processes
Who or what is
involved?
Participants
Action: doing Who or what is doing
or being done to?
Relating: being, having
causing
Who or what is being
described?
Mental: thinking,
feeling, perceiving
Who or what is thinking,
feeling, sensing?
Saying Who or what is saying?
• Jointly analyse the first 13 sentences of Flood,
identifying verbs/processes and ‘doer’ participants.
• Model asking the questions for the first sentence:
1. The rain fell gently onto the dry land.
> What happened here? What word tells us the
action? – fell. Highlight or circle green.
> Who or what fell? Who/what did the action?
– The rain. Underline red.
• Involve students in asking the questions for
sentences 2 and 3:
2. Grass grew.
3. Trees thickened.
• Point out that sentence 4 does not tell us what
happened, it is not an ‘action’ sentence:
4. It was strange not to play outside.
> What’s the verb/relating process? What’s
the word connecting the thing and its
description? – was. Highlight or circle green.
> What was strange? – It. Underline red.
If students have diculty identifying ‘was’, remind
them the verb carries the tense and have them
change the tense of the sentence to locate the verb:
It is strange, or It will be strange.
• Sentence 5 uses a synonym for being.
5. The rain turned savage.
What happened here?– turned. Highlight or
circle green. Explore the meaning of turned: it
does not mean rotating, changing direction, but
rather expresses the state or change in state of
the water. Generate alternatives: It was savage
now. It became savage. It grew savage.
• Let students take the lead in asking the questions
for sentences 6 and beyond:
6. White sheets slashed the sky.
7. It was too much for the ground to hold.
(It = the water)
8. A giant wave swept across the land.
9. The rain stopped, // but the wall of water
surged into the river.
10. Hour by hour the river rose.
11. In some places water only nibbled at the banks,
// but in others it burst across the river bends …
up into the streets.
12. It sounded like a helicopter.
13. It sounded like a flood.
• Sentences 9 and 11 each have 2 clauses. Scaold
students through sentence 9:
> How many things happen (events) in this
sentence? – 2.
> Explain that there are 2 parts or ideas. Each idea
is a separate chunk: separate clause. Can you see/
hear that there are 2 parts when I read it again?
> Turn and talk: Who can tell where the first part
(idea/event/clause) ends?
> Point out there are 2 clues indicating the end
of the idea: comma and conjunction but.
> Insert 2 lines to show the break (linguists use
double forward slash, ie //).
> Explain that we then look at each clause separately
to ask questions for process and participant.
> Read just the first clause and then students ask
and answer questions. Repeat with second clause.
• Sentences 12 and 13: Explore the function of
sounded to describe the noise of the water.
Generate alternatives and other similar expressions:
The noise was like a helicopter. It was a flood.
The noise resembled a helicopter. It seemed like
a flood. It looked like a flood. Create a chart of
synonyms for being.
• Ask students which of the participants refer to the
water (eg rain, river, wave). Put a box around each
noun group that represents the water (those that
have been bolded in the examples above).
• Students scan the remainder of the text to locate
other sentences that have ‘water’ as a participant
– either as doer of the action – or the thing being
described:
>
The river
was the enemy.
>
It
swallowed everything then (it)* wanted more.
*(‘it’ omitted in original text)
>
The river’s power
was mightier by far.
> … [the tugboat] let
the river
sweep the
monstrous wreckage out to sea.
> … Slowly
the flood
crept back into the river.
>
The river
shone under the blue sky (
It
was)*
a friend again. *(‘It was’ omitted in original text)
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
36 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
Some students may recognise that the water is the doer in this sentence written in the passive voice: A café,
wrenched from its foundations, was captured in the river’s surge. If so, discuss that the café is the ‘done to’
participant here and ask questions to reveal the ‘doer’:
• who/what wrenched the café from its foundations? – the floodwater
• who/what captured the café? – the flooding river.
• Create a list of verbs used to express actions done by the river. In small groups, students:
> check for meanings in English and bilingual dictionaries
> add L1 equivalents alongside the words in the list
> create glossary definitions/explanations.
• In pairs students:
> sort and rank the verbs from ‘gentle friend’ to ‘savage enemy’
> identify which of the verbs chosen by the author are usually associated with a person or animal, eg
nibbled, swallowed, wanted and discuss the eect of these choices (personification of the river)
> place the verbs on a plot/tension graph and map the actions of the river to the stages of the narrative:
orientation, complications increasing in intensity and reorientation.
• Students refer to thesauruses and other fiction and non-fiction texts to add to the range of verbs that could
describe actions of water, eg:
> rain: dripped, drizzled, pelted, bucketed down, poured
> river: raged, flowed, rushed, trickled.
• Create a cloze activity by deleting verbs that express actions done by the river. Students experiment with
substituting other verbs and discuss what eect this has on meaning for a reader.
• Classify types of processes used in the text. Ask students to look for any patterns in verb choices and
the building and releasing of tension of the story. Discuss the movement between actions of the water,
responses to these actions (eects/reactions) and description.
• Groups, generate verbs to represent the various sounds that water, rain, a river, the ocean, etc can make,
eg thundered, crashed, roared, gurgled, pitter-pattered.
• Jointly construct a character, choosing a form of water. Using a template with prompts:
• Students decide the type of character/mood they wish to create and use the template to plan how to show it
through what it is/has, does, thinks/feels and says. From the template plan, they do a 5-minute brain dump.
25
• Allow students 5 to 10 minutes to rework their brain dump into a draft paragraph and share with a partner,
then with the class.
• Students plan and write their own stories (or descriptions) about rain, a river, the ocean.
25
Brain dump (free-writing) only has one rule – you can’t stop writing. If you can’t think of anything else to write, rewrite the
previous word or sentence until you can.
What they
do – actions,
eg nibble.
What their
body does,
eg tremble.
What they are or become,
eg turn savage; and what they
have, eg possess a weapon.
What and how they say,
eg roar, whisper.
What they think, eg think, decide,
wonder; feel or want, eg love, hate, want,
hope; and sense, eg hear, see, taste.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 37
10. Tenses and complex relationships of time
Dierent tenses in narratives
Engage
• Display a large timeline with columns for present, past and future. See also ‘Grammatical accuracy: control
of the verb group and tense’ on pages 4 to 14 for further explanations of tenses and visual representations
on timelines.
• Create clause cards using the class narrative with verb groups in green. Adapt sentences to:
> maintain the original meaning of the text
> provide the best range of tenses as appropriate to the text
> contain only one verb group: one clause with the sayer and saying process, and another with what was
said, limiting this to one clause: one verb group
> break compound and complex sentences into separate simple sentences
> for multi-word verb groups, eg with mental and action, divide into 2 clauses: Your father has decided.
He is going to do away with it. This clarifies that the decision has happened (past), but the action has
not yet (future).
• Read a clause, thinking aloud to determine past, present or future. Model placing it in the appropriate column.
Jointly determine a few more clauses. Students justify their choices.
• In pairs, students determine where the remaining clause strips go, explaining their thinking as they place the
cards on the chart.
Now – present
Yesterday – past
What we did, said,
thought, felt, had, were
Simple/always
What we do, say, think,
feel, have, are
Ongoing/right now
What we are doing,
saying, thinking, feeling,
having, being
Tomorrow – future
What we will do, say,
think, feel, have, be
Fern asked her mother.
They were setting the
table.
Her mother replied.
Your father has decided.
Fern shrieked.
Fern ran outdoors.
The grass was wet.
Fern caught up to her
Father.
I don’t see why.
He needs an axe.
One of the pigs is a runt.
It’s very small and weak.
Your father is right.
It’s unfair.
I see no dierence.
I know more about pigs.
She now has a pig.
Where is Pap going? The pig would probably
die.
He is going to do away
with it.
You will have to learn to
control yourself.
I will let you raise it on
a bottle.
Then you’ll see the
trouble.
• Point out the 3 clauses: ‘Fern asked her mother’; ‘Where is Pap going?’; ‘They were setting the table’. Explain
how sentences are broken into separate clauses, so there is one verb group on each strip. Sometimes words
have changed but the meaning is the same.
• Make explicit that the original sentence contained 3 clauses:
> one that told us what Fern said – present
> one that told us that Fern spoke – past (simple)
> one that told us what she and her mother were doing when she spoke – past (continuous).
• In pairs, students explore the other clauses in the present or future columns, locating them in the text and
looking for patterns about where they are found.
• As a whole group, share findings, eliciting that all/almost all are located within speech marks.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
38 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
Tense in narratives
Most narratives are ‘narrated’ using past tenses, though
some use present, eg Fang Fang’s Chinese New Year:
‘Lisa comes to Fang Fang’s house and the family
drives to the restaurant.’
Even if narrated in the past, a narrative often uses
a range of tenses to express complex relationships
of time, as it moves in and out of dialogue and
character’s thoughts. A narrative can use:
• past for events/states:
> simple past to tell what happened
> past continuous (-ing form) to show what was
happening when something else happened
> ‘-ed/en’ perfect (completed) form to show that
one event has/had happened before another
• present in dialogue to tell us what someone
thinks/feels or describes/comments on situations
• future when characters think about or say what
will/might happen.
(See Resource 3: Analysis and commentary of
Charlotte’s Web extract, where the changes in tense
across the page are shown in the right column of
the table.)
Simple past and past continuous
(-ing ongoing) tenses
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Display 2 sentences from your focus narrative,
eg ‘Fern pushed a chair out of the way. Fern ran
outdoors.’
• Ask students what tense these are and revise with
students what marks them as past tense. Underline
the ‘ed’ sux in pushed and the irregular past tense
form of ran. (See Resource 1: Common irregular
verbs in English.) Remind them that we use
dierent tenses so that we can understand when
things happened in relation to each other.
• Students number the events first and second and
place them on a timeline:
1st
2nd now
x
x
• Take the 2 clauses: ‘Fern asked her mother.’ and
‘They were setting the table.’ Revise with students
what marks them as past tense and underline the
‘ed’ sux in asked and the past tense auxiliary in
were setting.
• Students visualise the events as you reread the
original sentence: ‘Where is Pap going?’ Fern asked
her mother as they were setting the table for
breakfast.
• Students turn and talk to share their visualisation
and the relationship between the events.
• Discuss that the action of setting the table continued
for a longer period of time than the asking: setting
the table was happening before, during and after
the asking. Students suggest ways to represent the
2 events on the timeline:
now
x
• Discuss the eect of using the past continuous, eg
it provides a background to the events; it is like we
are seeing a movie playing; it helps us visualise a
setting; it is a quick way to show us when (morning
before breakfast) and where (in the kitchen) the
events were happening.
• In pairs, students discuss the timing of the events
on the remaining sentence strips and represent
them on a timeline.
• Model changing which action is ongoing and
discuss the eect, eg does it change which event
seems more important? Note that authors can
choose which event will be ongoing.
Adapting and choosing sentences
The original example from the text had a plural
subject (Fern and her mother were setting the table).
Include some sentences with one character as a
singular subject (Fern, her mother) so that you can
make explicit the changes in the auxiliary (helper)
from was to were.
• Display 2 related simple sentences in simple past
tense.
• Model steps for creating a complex sentence using
simple past and past continuous:
1. Angela dusted the lounge room. She heard a
knock at the door.
> ask: ‘Which process would likely last the
longest?’ or ‘Which process would have been
happening when the other one happened?’
Fern pushed
Fern ran
They were setting the table.
Fern asked her mother.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 39
> underline it: dusted
> change it to past continuous form: was
dusting
> join the 2 clauses with a subordinating
conjunction to create a complex sentence:
Angela was dusting the lounge room when
she heard a knock at the door.
2. Remaema walked lazily through the rainforest.
She ate her favourite wild berries.
> ask: ‘Which process would likely last the
longest?’ or ‘Which process would have been
happening when the other one happened?’
> underline it: walked
> change it to past continuous form: was
walking
> join the 2 clauses with a subordinating
conjunction to create a complex sentence:
Remaema was walking lazily through the
rainforest while she ate her favourite wild
berries.
> repeat, this time underlining ate and changing
to was eating: Remaema walked lazily through
the rainforest as she was eating her favourite
wild berries.
• Provide students with other pairs and have them
work in pairs to create complex sentences, eg:
> Lily walked through the door. Dad sat at the
table with his head in his hands (ongoing: sitting):
When Lily walked through the door, dad was
sitting at the table with his head in his hands.
> The sun came up. Abel ran down the jetty: Just
as the sun was coming up, Abel ran down the
jetty, or, Abel was running down the jetty just as
the sun came up.
Complex sentences combining simple past
and past continuous tenses
As and while are often used to combine these tenses, eg
Fern asked her mother as they were setting the table
for breakfast. Fern and her mother set the table while
they were talking. Fern pleaded with her father as he
was walking to the hog-house. Fern was pleading with
her father as he walked to the hog-house. Fern was
holding the pig when her brother came into the room.
When is used when an ongoing event (dusting) is
interrupted by another (heard a knock) or the second
event finishes quickly and the first event is still
continuing. (Fern was holding the pig when her
brother came into the room.)
While, as or just as can be used to join 2 simultaneously
ongoing events.
See the learning sequence 6 section ‘Simple past
(happened) and past continuous (was happening)’,
explicitly teaching the ‘ing’ sux and was/were
auxiliary to show happening in the past.
Links to other genres and curriculum areas
Science procedural recounts, eg When the liquid was
bubbling, we measured the temperature again; The
string broke when we were attaching the pendulum.
Simple past and perfect tenses
See ‘Grammatical accuracy: control of the verb group
and tense’, in particular, ‘Elaborated tenses’ (page 7).
The section on the ‘Perfect (completed) aspect’
provides explanations of the ‘-ed/en’ ending and
when it is used (page 9).
When introducing past participle forms, it is important
to make explicit that, in SAE, this form of the verb
needs to have an auxiliary verb. Many dialects, eg
Aboriginal Englishes, use the past participle without
an auxiliary, eg I seen a lizard. My dad gone to the city.
I been for a run. I done my homework.
Present perfect
Engage
• Display pairs of sentences, one in present perfect
and the other rewritten in simple past tense, eg:
> ‘So, your father has decided to do away with it.’
(present perfect)
> ‘So, your father decided to do away with it.’
(simple past)
• Explain that both sentences are in the past: you
will explore the 2 choices.
• Students locate the original sentence in the text and
read it in context, reading the paragraph before
and after:
> ‘I don’t see why he needs an axe,’ continued Fern,
who was only eight.
> ‘Well,’ said her mother, ‘one of the pigs is a runt.
It’s very small and weak, and it will never amount
to anything. So your father has decided to do
away with it.’
> ‘Do away with it?’ shrieked Fern. ‘You mean kill
it? Just because it’s smaller than the others?’
• Students turn and talk about what is happening in
this scene: Why did her father need an axe?
• Reread the passage, replacing the original sentence
with the sentence in simple past tense. In small
groups, students reflect on the eect, eliciting
points:
> In simple past, the event is finished, over and done
with: Father has perhaps already killed the pig.
> In the present perfect the event is finished but
it’s not over and done with so it’s important to
the present. There is a sense of these things
having just happened.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
40 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Provide students with a range of sentences using
the present perfect tense. Students look for patterns
in how it is formed.
• Jointly construct a chart showing the changes
in verb form when creating present perfect. You
could use the chart on page 10 under ‘Present
perfect’.
• Model and jointly construct some sentences to
create an anchor chart before students work
in pairs and individually to construct sentences
using the present perfect in response to prompt
questions, eg:
> Why are you red in the face? I have just been for
a run.
> What have you decided to do/have … ? I have
decided to tell her.
> Why aren’t you doing your work? I have finished.
> Where have you been? I have been to the oce.
> Are you hungry/thirsty? Would you like something?
No, thanks. I have just eaten.
Past perfect
Engage
• Provide students with 2 clauses, one in simple past
and one in past perfect, eg:
> Fern quickly grabbed her breakfast now that the
pig had had its bottle.
> By the time the bus reached school, Fern had
named her pet.
> Wilbur had finished his bottle but he still wanted
more.
> Lily sighed in relief. Her father hadn’t noticed
the box.
• Jointly identify the verb group in each clause.
Determine order of events, number clauses, then
cut into the 2 parts:
> Fern quickly grabbed her breakfast // 2nd
> now that the pig had had its bottle. 1st
• Place the clauses in the correct column of a table:
Event 1 Event 2
now that the pig had
had its bottle
Fern quickly grabbed
her breakfast
Fern had named her pet by the time the bus
reached school
Wilbur had finished his
bottle
but he still wanted
more
Her father hadn’t
noticed the box.
Lily sighed in relief.
• Students turn and talk about patterns in the verb
groups comparing events 1 and 2.
• Discuss:
> verb groups in event 1 are multi-word groups
and in event 2 they are single words
> the first word in the event 1 verb groups is the
auxiliary: had
> the main verb in both the first and the second
event is in the past tense (-ed)
> adding ‘had’ before the past tense verbs, shows
it happened before another event.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Jointly construct ‘rules’ for forming the past
perfect (see page 10 under ‘Past perfect’). Create
an anchor chart with explanations of when to use
it, timeline visuals and examples (see page 11 for a
summary). See also Resource 1: Common irregular
verbs in English, which provides the simple past
and past participle forms. Adapt simple sentences
from a text in past tense to teach how to add
another clause that provides the reason for the first
event/reason:
> Yunni was crying. ‘Why? – What had happened
before?’ – he had fallen over.
> Yunni was crying because he had fallen over.
> The science seedlings were dead. ‘Why? – What
had happened?’ We had forgotten to water
them. The science seedlings were dead because
we had forgotten to water them.
• Provide several large pieces of paper, each with a
picture depicting a person’s feeling, eg overjoyed,
or a problem such as a broken window. Use a
carousel activity, where each group of 3 has a
time limit to decide what had happened to cause
the feeling or problem, then construct a sentence
using the past perfect. Ring a bell and students
pass their papers to the next group. Students
read the previous examples, then create a new
sentence. Example sentences are provided below:
The woman was
overjoyed because …
she had won the lottery.
she had found her lost
cat.
she had finally cracked
the code.
A window was broken
because …
a child had hit a ball
into the window.
a burglar had broken
into the house.
a tree had fallen against
the window.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 41
Links to other genre and curriculum areas
Historical recounts and accounts: provide students with 2 associated events. Decide which is first, change to past
perfect and then join, eg:
• Aboriginals lived in harmony with the land for thousands of years. Europeans arrived. Aboriginals had lived
in harmony with the land for thousands of years before Europeans arrived.
• Many suered from depression as adults. They grew up without their parents’ love. Many suered from
depression as adults because they had grown up without their parents’ love.
11. Process types and tense according to genre stage
and purpose
Stages of a science report and patterns in process types and tenses
Additional resource
Resource 4: Science investigation – model text and some of the activities that follow have been adapted from
Rossbridge’s
(2015) Writing to recount scientifically. One chapter outlines a teaching and learning cycle for a
year 3 science unit of work that explicitly focuses on the literacy of the science investigation report to deepen
the science understandings.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Using a framework showing the stages of a science investigation, discuss what we would expect to find
included in each stage.
• Provide a cut-up model text. In small groups, students sequence the stages and match the cut-up sections
to the headings.
• Display the model text and highlight the verb groups in the ‘Aim’ and ‘Hypothesis’ sections.
• Jointly highlight the verb groups in the ‘Method – steps’ section and in the first sentence or 2 of the ‘Results’.
• In small groups, students highlight the remaining verb groups in the ‘Results’ and ‘Conclusion’.
• Students classify the types of processes in a table, showing which types correspond to each stage of the
report as below:
Science investigation
report stage
Processes
Mental Action Relating
Aim happens
change
Hypothesis think will heat up
Method – steps stick
pour
stand
Results noticed
saw
observed
started to melt
slid
heated up …
Conclusion travels
passes
is/are
are not
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
42 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
• Discuss the various report stages and how the patterns of the verb groups match the purpose of each stage.
Co-construct a chart such as the one below:
Science investigation
report stage
Purpose Patterns of verbs and verb groups
Aim
Investigation question
Says what we want to find out:
question we want answer to
Simple present action – what happens
when
Hypothesis Tells what we think will happen Simple present mental and future
action – what I think now about what
will happen
Method – steps
Equipment/materials
Lists all the things we need
Gives instructions for what you need
to do
Command form actions – what the
experimenter must do
Results
Observation
Tells what we observed/saw Past tense mental and action – what
we observed through our senses, eg
saw, smelt, heard and what we noticed
or realised in our mind about what
happened or didn’t happen
Conclusion
Generalisation
Explains why it happens using science
– defines things
Simple present action and relating –
explaining why it (always) happens and
telling us what things are
• Create a cloze activity by removing verbs from the model report (Resource 4). Students insert the correct
form of the verb and justify with a partner. Focus on only 1 or 2 process types or 1 or 2 sections of the report
in any one cloze activity.
Mental processes – predicting and recording observations
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Provide sentence frames, ‘I think that … will…’ and ‘I hypothesise that … will’. Students share predictions in
a range of everyday and science contexts.
• Create a chart of mental processes for sensing and perceiving. Using thesauruses, students find alternative
synonyms, eg detect, hear, identify, glimpse, notice, noted, observe, perceive, see, sense, smell, spot,
taste, witness.
• Discuss whether all are appropriate for a science report, eg spotted or glimpsed are too informal or better
suited to create imagery in a narrative.
• Put 2 headings on the board and model how to write sentences observing changes using mental processes.
Discuss the word ‘that’, which often follows after a mental (perceiving/noticing) process.
Who sensed/observed that An observable event
1. I detected that the metal spoon heated up the fastest
2. I saw that the water started to bubble
Multi-word verb groups
The observable event is often described using a multi-word verb to add more precise details of the timing
and/or duration of the event. See learning sequence 12 ‘Multi-word verb groups to indicate details of timing
and duration’.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 43
• In pairs, students create a table as below. On the
left side of the page, write 3 sentence beginnings,
each with a subject/sensor and a sensing verb.
On the right of the page write 3 observable events
in the past tense. These could be science-based
or from everyday cooking activities.
Who sensed/
observed that
An observable event
1. I observed that
2. We heard
3. The class noticed that
4. the ice cracked
5. the water boiled
6. the shadow got longer
• Have pairs swap with another pair for them to
complete the missing parts to create 6 complete
sentences.
12. Multi-word verb groups:
details of timing and duration
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Show the multi-word verb group/s in a model text
such as Resource 4, eg started to melt. Point out
the 2 verbs (2 parts) in this group: started and to
melt. Discuss the function of the 2 parts, eg:
> ask: ‘Which is the main verb that tells us what
happened? What was the action?’ – melt
> underline the main verb: to melt
> ask: ‘What is the function of started? What
meaning does it add?’ It tells us that the melting
had just begun
> summarise in the left-hand column of the table:
First part Second part
Tells us the timing and
gives the tense
The main verb tells
us what happened:
it uses the ‘to’ form
or the ‘ing’ form
starts just begins:
present
to turn into
started just begun:
past
to melt
begins just starts:
present
to bubble
began just started:
past
mixing
continue keep doing:
present
to add
continued keep doing:
past
to glow
kept continued
the process:
past
stirring
stopped process
ended: past
spinning
go on continue
the process:
present
adding
have
finished
end of
process: past
polishing
• In pairs, using examples from the focus genre,
students locate examples of multi-word verb
groups where one part gives details of the timing.
Discuss the functions and patterns of the 2 parts.
• Pairs join to share findings and create a chart.
Regroup as a whole class to compare charts.
• Remind students that, in English, the verb group
carries tense, anchoring events in time. Students
examine the multi-word verb groups to find the
tense. Establish that it is in the first part. Discuss
variations of verb forms, eg started, starts, has
started, is starting. Add this detail to the table.
• Students look for patterns in the second part of
the verb group. Make explicit that it is either the
‘to form’ to melt or the ‘ing form’ melting. Add this
detail to the right-hand column of the chart.
• Practise using multi-word verb groups, eg:
> Cloze activities created by deleting the first or
second part of a multi-word verb group.
> Match main and subordinate clauses, eg:
– Heat on high // until it begins to bubble.
– We kept stirring it // until it was all melted.
– When butter is heated // it starts to turn into
a liquid.
– Sprinkle with more flour // if it starts to stick
to the board.
• Write about observable events using a multi-word
verb group:
Who sensed/
observed that
An observable event
1. I observed that the water stopped
boiling.
2. We heard the ice begin to crack.
3. The class noticed that the shadow kept
growing longer.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
44 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
Links to other genre and curriculum areas
Links to reading and/or writing, eg:
• explanations in science, geography or design and
technology, eg life cycles or electric circuits
• cooking, the arts, or design and technology: more
complex procedures or procedural recounts
• HASS recounts and news reports of key events,
such as natural disasters. Using texts with eye-
witness accounts of events, students highlight
any mental processes used and take notes of
observations in tables showing Who (sensor/
observer), sensing/perceiving verb that and
observable event or thing. Students read about
a natural disaster then take on the role of an
eyewitness to give an oral or written account.
13. Relating processes:
expanding choices
Synonyms of ‘to be’ and ‘to have’
in descriptive reports
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Revise:
> the purpose of information reports
26
to classify
and describe
> the structure: opening general statement/
general classification stage and description/facts
about various aspects of the topic stage
> the 4 types of processes (action, relating, mental
and saying).
• Discuss which process type will be important
to classify and describe things: classifying what
something ‘is’ and describing what it ‘is’ and ‘has’.
• Display a visual that shows the work of relating verbs:
Thing being
described
Relating verb Description
Kangaroos are
Australian
marsupials
Kangaroos have
a small head
and big ears
(adapted from Derewianka, 2020:24)
• Display 1 or 2 model reports. Deconstruct the
phases (sub-stages or sub-functions) of the
classification stage. Highlight verbs that are doing
this work. Create a chart such as the one in the
next column.
Relating verbs in general classification
stage of a report
Phase function
– job it does
Relating
verbs
Examples
classifies/
groups
is/are,
belongs
to, are
classified
as
Kangaroos belong
to the family of
marsupials.
defines is/are, is
defined as
A marsupial is
a mammal that
continues to
develop in its
mother’s pouch
after
it is born.
names is/are
called, is/
are known
as
A baby kangaroo
is called a joey.
introduces
types or sub-
groups
(there) are,
includes
There are dierent
types of kangaroo.
They include the
red kangaroo
and the eastern
and western grey
kangaroos.
• Using a range of reports, students find relating
processes used in the general classification stage
and add to the chart.
• Create a similar chart, focusing on relating verbs
in the description phases of a report:
Relating verbs in description stage of a report
Phase function
– job it does
Relating
verbs
Examples
names and
describes
physical features
(looks like)
is/are,
has/have,
possesses;
looks like,
resembles
Kangaroos have
long ears that
resemble rabbit
ears. Joeys are
hairless when
they are born.
describes/
compares
qualities
is/are,
has/have,
possesses
Kangaroos are
very strong.
Kangaroos
possess great
strength and
speed.
names parts has/have,
made
up of,
consists of,
includes,
possess
A kangaroo’s
diet consists of
grass, leaves,
bark, flowers and
fruit. Kangaroos
possess powerful
hind legs.
26
See also ‘Chapter 5 Information Reports’ in Derewianka (2020).
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 45
• Students find relating verbs in the description stage
and add to the chart above.
• Practise using the new vocabulary, eg:
> Complete cloze activities where relating
processes have been removed.
> Find synonyms for the verbs ‘to be’ and ‘to have’
to rework a text. Replace some of the verbs,
checking that the synonym has the correct
meaning. Point out that students do not need
to replace every verb ‘to be’ and verb ‘to have’.
They are not ‘bad’ or ‘weak’ choices.
> Create sets of cards:
– ‘topic words’: thing being described, eg female
kangaroos, joeys, kangaroo’s diet
– relating processes/verbs
– descriptions/facts in note form: sharp claws;
a pouch; grass, leaves and fruit.
• Play matching or dice games (1 and 4 = thing
being described; 2 and 5 = relating process and 3
and 6 = description) to build sentences.
• Write sentence beginnings on chart and post
around the room. Students complete a sentence
and move to the next chart. They read previous
sentence endings and create a new one.
Subject-verb agreement
Remind students that in the simple present tense the
verb must change to agree with the subject, eg:
• singular (it): is, has, looks like
• plural (they): are, have, look like.
(See 5 ‘Action and relating processes’ on pages 26 to
28 for more teaching and learning activities.)
Moving beyond verb ‘to be’
and simple causing (made)
in explanations
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Revise:
> purpose of explanations to explain how or why
something changes/happens
> dierent types of explanations:
– sequential – organised by time to describe
the steps/stages in how something happens,
eg a life cycle or how glass is recycled
– causal – sequenced in time but with a focus
on what causes the change from one stage
to the next, eg cyclones, how a torch works
> structure:
– general statement (identifying the phenomenon
to be explained)
– explanation sequence
> four types of processes: action, relating, mental
and saying. Action processes are important to
explain what ‘happens.’ Relating processes show:
– that something changes and becomes
something else
– that something made or caused the next
thing to happen.
• Display a visual that shows the work of relating verbs:
Initial state
or event
Relating verb New state
some storms
at sea
become cyclones
tropical rain
clouds and
spiralling
winds
cause
storms
at sea
• In groups (same L1 if possible), students use bilingual
dictionaries and thesauruses to generate a list of
3 to 4 synonyms for becomes and causes, adding
L1 equivalents alongside.
• Share to make a combined class list. Ensure meaning
is retained and identify the most widely used:
Relating verb
become makes
grows/grows into causes
turns into results in
changes into leads to
forms affects
• Provide flowcharts representing key stages in a
familiar process. In pairs, students practise using
the relating processes from the class list to create
sentences, explaining the shift from one stage to
the next, first orally, then in writing.
• Using a list of events, students pair related events,
then sort into causes and eects:
Cause Eect
1. It rains heavily for long
periods in the wet
season.
The rivers overflow.
2. The metal spoon
heated up.
The butter melted
and the bead fell o.
3. Plastic bags end up in
the ocean.
Many sea creatures
choke and die.
4. There was a storm with
very strong winds.
A lot of trees fell and
damaged houses.
5. A tree fell onto power
lines.
The power failed.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
46 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
Grammatical changes when using
a causal relating verb
Verbs connecting cause and eect
The simplest causing verb make/made can be used
with minimal grammatical changes. The verb make
will change according to the tense and the verb
that follows will be the base form. The 2 verbs work
together as a verb group, eg make do/act. This makes
something happen; This made something happen;
This will make something happen. For example, It
rains heavily for a long period. This makes the river
overflow; The metal spoon heated up, which made
the butter melt.
The verb affect tells us that there was an eect on
something, but it doesn’t tell us what the eect was.
It can be used with the pattern: This affects something,
meaning the eect must be a noun/noun group, eg
Plastic bags end up in the ocean. This affects many
sea creatures. A tree fell onto power lines, which
affected the power supply.
Revise
Connect a cause and an eect with a conjunction,
identifying the verbs in each clause to make explicit
that there are 2 (or more) clauses. Point out that
adding a conjunction to connect the cause clause to
the eect clause doesn’t change the grammar of the
clauses. The only changes required are punctuation
as 2 sentences become one and inserting a comma
at the end of the subordinate clause if it comes first.
Subordinate clause Main clause
Subordinating
conjunction
Cause Eect
1. When it rains heavily
for long
periods in the
wet season,
the rivers
overflow.
2. As the metal spoon
heated up,
the butter
melted and the
bead fell o.
3. If plastic bags
end up in the
ocean,
many sea
creatures
choke and die.
4. Because there was a
storm with very
strong winds,
a lot of trees fell
and damaged
houses.
5. Since a tree fell onto
power lines,
the power
failed.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Explain that they will focus on 2 common patterns
to connect a cause to its eect, using a verb to
show cause (a causal relating verb). Remind them
that adding a verb requires changing the grammar
of the clause.
• Display a causes and eects table, such as the
one below, and use it to explain both patterns:
Cause Eect
1. It rains heavily for
long periods in the
wet season.
The rivers overflow.
2. The metal spoon
heated up.
The butter melted and
the bead fell o.
3. Plastic bags end
up in the ocean.
Many sea creatures choke
and die.
4. There was a storm
with very strong
winds.
A lot of trees fell and
damaged houses.
5. A tree fell onto
power lines.
The power failed.
Pattern 1: This causes something to happen
• Model connecting the causes and eects from
the table above. Start the second sentence with
‘This causes’ to show how to connect eects to
the cause, eg It rains heavily for long periods in the
wet season. This causes the rivers to overflow.
• Ask students what ‘this’ refers to. Confirm it refers
back to the whole idea in the previous sentence:
it rains heavily for long periods in the wet season.
• Students talk about what else changed in the eect
sentence: ‘overflow’ changed to ‘to overflow’.
Emphasise the point, writing on the board: This
causes something to happen.
• Point out that the cause verb needs to match the
tense, eg the first cause and eect were in the
present tense so you chose causes.
• Students read the second cause and eect,
identifying the tense as past tense.
• Using think aloud, model the change to the second
sentence, eg:
> I’m going to start the sentence with This.
> I’ll have to use the past tense for cause–caused.
The pattern is: ‘This caused something to
happen’, so This caused the butter to melted? –
No, the verb that follows ‘to’ is the base form, so
it’s This caused the butter to melt.
> Two things happened: the butter melted and
the bead fell off. This caused the butter to melt
and the bead to – I have to change fell to fall.
This caused the butter to melt and the bead to
fall off.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 47
• Jointly construct the 3rd cause and eect, using
guiding questions, eg:
> How will we start the sentence? – This
> What tense will we use? – present tense – So
what will we use? – causes
> And what does this cause the sea creatures to
do? Remember we need to change the verb.
This causes many sea creatures to choke and
to die – or we can put the 2 verbs together and
say, to choke and die.
• In pairs, students create the eect sentence for the
4th and 5th causes and eects, talking their way
through the process.
Cause Eect
1. It rains heavily for
long periods in the
wet season.
This causes the rivers
to overflow.
2. The metal spoon
heated up.
This caused the butter
to melt and the bead
to fall o.
3. Plastic bags end
up in the ocean.
This causes many sea
creatures to choke
and die.
4. There was a storm
with very strong
winds.
This caused a lot of
trees to fall and damage
houses.
5. A tree fell onto
power lines.
This caused the power
to fail.
• Students think of another cause and eect and
create a new sentence to practise and share.
Subject-verb agreement
Remind students that in the simple present tense the
verb must change to agree with the subject, eg:
• singular (it/this): causes
• plural (they/these): cause.
If this is a relevant learning goal for your students, see
5 ‘Action and relating processes’ – ‘Focus on subject-
verb agreement’.
Pattern 2: This results in/leads to something
happening
• Model connecting the first cause and eect by
starting the second sentence with This results in.
Students look and listen for what else changes in
the eect sentence.
Cause Eect
1. It rains heavily for
long periods in the
wet season.
This results in the rivers
overflowing.
2. The metal spoon
heated up.
This results in the butter
melting and the bead
falling o.
• Students turn and talk to share what they noticed:
overflow changed to overflowing. Write students’
suggestions on the board to show this pattern:
This results in something happening.
• Jointly construct the next example with students
leading the think/talk aloud for the steps, eg:
> We start the sentence with This
> We match the tense, so we use past tense –
so we use? – resulted in
> And it results in something happening so we
change the verb. This resulted in the butter
melting and the bead falling o.
• In pairs, students create eect sentences for the
3rd to 5th causes and eects, talking their way
through the process.
• Pairs create a new pair of cause and eect sentences
to share.
• Point out that leads to follows the same grammar
pattern as results in but its meaning is a little
dierent.
• Discuss the dierence in meaning, drawing out
that causes and results in express a strong causal
relationship. That is, if A happens, B will happen
fairly immediately. In contrast leads to expresses
a weaker causal relationship. That is, if A happens,
B will probably happen. If so, it will happen after
some time has passed. Leads to is often preceded
by ‘often’ or ‘can/may’.
• Students determine for which of the 5 pairs it
would be appropriate to use leads to and whether
it would be best to add ‘often’ or ‘can/may’.
Using nominalisation
27
• Review relating processes with students, stressing
that ‘to be ‘and ‘to have’ almost always relate 2
participants in one clause, creating a pattern of
this is that, eg The house is old or this has that,
eg The house has an old roof. Causing processes
can work in a similar way to create a ‘this caused
that’ pattern, eg The drought led to a devastating
famine.
• Demonstrate combining the cause and eect:
volcanoes erupt; they damage roads and buildings:
> in one sentence, nominalising either the cause
or the eect, eg When volcanoes erupt, they
cause a lot of damage to roads and buildings;
Volcanic eruptions result in many roads and
buildings being damaged
> in one clause, nominalising both cause and
eect, eg When volcanoes erupt, they damage
roads and buildings; Volcanic eruptions cause
a lot of damage to roads and buildings.
27
See the introduction to Nouns and noun groups.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
48 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
14. Adding modals to persuade
Engage
• Show the cover of Which Pet Would You Get?.
28
Students ‘Think, Pair, Share’ which pets they like
and list choices, including at least one animal not
pictured on the cover.
• Read the book aloud. Students can also listen to
the text being narrated in L1 if available.
• Explain that they will:
> write persuasive texts/arguments about pets
> learn about patterns in the verb groups.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Provide copies of the text and model identifying
and circling/highlighting in green the verb group
in the title, eg Which pet would you get?
Verbs in statements vs questions
In a statement, the auxiliary and main verb come after
the subject participant (who/what): You would get
a pet. This is called the ‘declarative form’. Questions
are usually formed by placing an auxiliary before the
subject: Would you get a pet? So, the verb group
is split and placed either side of the subject. This is
called the ‘interrogative form’.
• Jointly identify and circle/highlight verb groups in
green in the first sentence. Students continue for
the remainder of the text:
> If you would like a quiet pet, you could get
a rabbit.
> If you would like a wet pet, you could get a fish.
> If you would like a shy pet, you could get a turtle.
> If you would like a cuddly pet, you could get
a cat.
> If you would like a prickly pet, you could get
a hedgehog.
> If you would like a beautiful pet, you could get
a bird.
> Which pet would you get?
• Make explicit that all of the verb groups in this
text have a main verb (get or like) and a helper/
auxiliary verb (would or could). (These are modal
auxiliaries.)
• Ask students to think about the use of the auxiliary
verbs would and could:
> How do they add to or change the meaning?
> What happens if we leave them out of the
sentence?
> Why might they be useful in a persuasive text?
• In small groups (if possible same L1 groups), students
discuss the meaning/eect of the auxiliary.
• Discuss that they are about future possibilities as
you elicit points such as:
> would
– is about something in the future or you are
imagining it
– it helps in a persuasive text because it’s talking
to you and making you think and imagine.
> could
– makes it sound like it’s still your choice: it’s
a possibility
– it helps in a persuasive text because it’s
suggesting ideas instead of telling you what
to do: giving you a reason or idea but letting
you decide.
> both would and could, if you leave them out:
– you need to change the first noun group –
make it plural/general, eg If you like quiet
pets, get a rabbit.
– it sounds ‘bossier’ or not as polite or as formal.
Context and politeness
Norms of politeness and formality are culturally and
linguistically specific. ‘What is polite to one culture
might be embarrassing or upsetting to others. Norms
of politeness vary across cultures.’
(Hassen, 2016:8)
28
• Explain that each sentence in the text is a
complex sentence (see also Sentence structure
5 ‘Subordinating conjunctions: cause, time and
condition’ which uses this text to teach the use
of ‘if’).. Students identify the parts and discuss
their purpose:
Subordinating clause with
subordinating conjunction
Main clause
If
joins
the 2
ideas
you would like a
quiet pet,
gives a description
of a kind of pet:
it provides the
reason you might
like the pet I’m
going to suggest
you could get a
rabbit.
suggests the right
kind of pet for
you, based on
what you like
Links to punctuation
When a subordinate clause comes before the main
clause, a comma is placed between the 2 clauses.
This reflects our intonation, which indicates that we
are giving background information and have not yet
reached the main clause.
28
Locke L (2010) Which Pet Would You Get? Unite for Literacy, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Locke2010 (accessed October 2020)
29
Hassen R (2016) ‘Culture-specific semiotic politeness norms in the multicultural society of Ethiopia’, Arts and Social Sciences
Journal, 7(1), available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Hassen2016 (accessed November 2020)
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 49
• Working with their original lists, students use the
pattern to write a sentence for each of the animals
listed in the book and think of another feature/
description to persuade someone to have that pet,
eg If you would like an entertaining pet, you could
get a hedgehog.
• Students pair up with someone from another
group to share and discuss which sentence is most
persuasive and why.
• Refer to the question at the end of the book and
model writing an answer using the sentence frame:
If I could choose a pet, I would get a … because
it is …
• Discuss the dierence in the structure, explaining
that we start with a future possibility, then a future
action, followed by the reason. Jointly construct
a new sentence using this pattern and adapting
one of the examples from the book, eg If I could
choose a pet, I would get a cat because it is soft
and cuddly.
• Students write their own sentence.
• Activities can be repeated using the negative: If I
could choose a pet, I wouldn’t get a … because it …
• Explain it is helpful to think about things from
another point of view. This can help us understand
how others might argue against us and how we
can best persuade them.
• Brainstorm 3 to 5 good and bad things about
having a dog as a pet. To support their thinking,
encourage students to consider opinions of
parents, neighbours, friends, etc.
• Generate lists of good things (advantages) and bad
things (disadvantages).
• Read If I Had a Puppy
30
. Compare each page to
the lists of advantages or disadvantages and create
responses using would to turn the negatives into
positives:
Grouping ideas as advantages and
disadvantages
31
Advantages Disadvantages
you can play with
them
• I would teach
him how to fetch
need a lot of looking after
• I would take good care
of him
• I would feed him
• I would take him to the vet
Advantages Disadvantages
you get exercise
• we would take
a walk together
they don’t clean themselves
• I would give him a bath
they are good
company
• we would be
best friends
they need to mix with other
dogs
• I would invite a puppy pal
over to play
• Students turn and talk about the use of would in
these sentences: How does it add to or change the
meaning? Is it dierent to the previous examples?
How could it help persuade a parent? Discuss that
would means a ‘promise’.
• Discuss how the statements here could help
persuade a parent to let the child have a dog,
drawing out that they show the child would take
responsibility for all the negative things. The
negative can be turned into a positive. Having
a dog can teach the child to be responsible and
care for someone/something else.
• Reiterate that you have been looking at sentences
about ‘what would or could happen if something
else happened in the future’ and make explicit that
even though we are talking about future possibilities,
the verb group takes the past tense form.
32
• Explain that we can also use the present tense in
the ‘if’ clause in arguments. Provide examples and
have students look and listen to the changes in the
verb groups, eg:
> If you own a dog, you can take it for walks.
> If I have a dog as a pet, we will be best friends.
> If you let me have a pet, I will take good care of it.
> If you want/need a quiet pet, you can get a rabbit.
• Discuss the changes, noting that:
> the verb in the subordinate ‘if’ clause uses the
simple present and has no auxiliary
> the verb in the main clause has an auxiliary:
– will instead of would to talk about the future
with some certainty (promise)
– can instead of could to talk about possibilities.
Additional suggested texts
A Secret Pet
33
uses the pattern: If I had a pet, I would …
In If I Could Fly
34
most sentences begin with I would.
Students could create their own sentences or books
about what they would do, eg ‘if they could fly’, ‘if
they could breathe underwater’.
30
Francis A (2016) If I Had a Puppy, Unite for Literacy, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Puppy (accessed October 2020)
31
See also Cohesive devices 8 ‘Text organisation in arguments’ – ‘Paragraphs to group and develop ideas’.
32
See also Sentence structure 5 ‘Subordinating conjunctions: cause, time or condition’ – ‘Subordinating conjunctions of condition’.
33
Hartman H & Ollikainen N (2013) A Secret Pet, Unite for Literacy, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/SecretPet (accessed November 2020)
34
Hartman H & Bremer C (2013) If I Could Fly, Unite for Literacy, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Fly
(accessed October 2020)
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
50 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
Extend the learning
• Teach future conditional: would; wouldn’t in
response to ‘If’ questions, eg ‘What would happen if:
> we put the seed upside down?
> all the insects in the world died?
> Harry Potter lost his glasses?’
• Make explicit that this tense uses the modal
auxiliary would and 2 clauses: one beginning with
If and one beginning with then, eg If we move,
then he would have to go to a new school.
• Explain that this structure is also useful in persuasive
texts, eg If the zookeepers really cared about stopping
animals from becoming extinct, then they would
set the babies free in the wild; If everyone stopped
using plastic bags, then there would be a lot less
rubbish in the streets.
If – future conditional verb forms
When the ‘if’ clause uses the verb ‘to be’, there are
2 variations:
1. The most commonly used, as taught to students
through the activities outlined here, describes
what a person thinks he/she will do in a specific
situation in the future. He/she is usually imagining
or guessing about the future but it is a ‘real’
possibility that it could happen in the future. In this
case, choose was/were to agree with the subject
participant as usual: If I was in the park, …; If we
were in the park …
2. The second expresses a conditional or hypothetical
situation that is highly unlikely or impossible.
Traditionally, in this case, were is used even for a
singular subject: If I were a dog, I wouldn’t want
to be locked up. This form is generally only used
in formal contexts: however, it is used in the text
If I Had a Puppy, eg If he were hungry, I would
feed him.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 51
LEVELS 79 LEAPING TO LEVELS 1012
LEVELS 7–9 LEAPING TO LEVELS 10–12
Learning sequence Language in focus Genres
15. Action, mental and
relating processes for
precision and technicality
• moving across the register
continuum with specialised and
technical topic-specific verbs
• replacing phrasal verbs with precise
synonyms
• factual recounts
• investigation reports
16. Saying and mental
processes to incorporate
other viewpoints
• saying and mental processes: bias
in texts
• direct and indirect speech and
thought
• expositions: arguments,
discussions, debates
• responses
17. Causal relating processes
for more precise relationships
of cause-eect
• causal relationships beyond simple
cause (made)
• expositions: arguments,
discussions, debates
• explanations
• responses
15. Action, mental and relating processes for precision
and technicality
Revise and engage
• Revise the register continuum (see page 3 of the introduction to ‘LEAP targeted strategies to accelerate SAE
proficiency’).
• Provide a spoken-like and written-like version of the same text such as Resource 5: Spoken vs written
explanation.
• In small groups, students read the 2 texts and discuss where they would be placed on the register continuum,
based on language choices.
• Discuss the placement as a class, considering the eect of the 2 texts on the reader.
• In groups, students highlight the dierent word choices in the 2 texts, identifying what type of words have
changed: mostly verbs/verb groups.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Explain that in spoken informal English, we often use phrasal verbs, which consist of a verb plus a preposition.
The addition of the preposition shifts the meaning of the verb, eg put out, put o, put up with. We can make
our language more formal by replacing phrasal verbs with a more precise verb.
• Students return to the 2 texts and identify where a phrasal verb was replaced by a more precise verb.
• Model using an online thesaurus tool to find synonyms, by typing in the base form, eg put out. (Past tense
forms are not recognised, neither is ‘puts out’ or ‘putting out’.)
• In pairs, students find replacement verbs for:
> I was really put out by you being late. (inconvenienced, bothered, disturbed)
> Be sure to put the campfire out. (extinguish, douse)
> I had to put off going on holiday. (delay, postpone)
> That really put me off. (repulsed, disgusted, offended)
> I don’t think I can put up with this anymore. (tolerate, endure, stand, bear)
• Generate a list of phrasal verbs. Divide the list among groups of students to use in sentences and then find
more formal/precise synonyms as above.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
52 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
Tier 2 and Tier 3 vocabulary
Be sure to include phrasal verbs:
• that can be replaced by more precise Tier 2
vocabulary such as:
> find out: discover, determine, research
> work out/figure out: calculate, solve, analyse,
determine, interpret
> have a go: attempt, participate, experiment
> look at: examine
> think about/think back over: reflect.
• that are more colloquial expressions of key topic-
specific (Tier 3) vocabulary:
> turn around: rotate, revolve
> change into: convert to, transform.
• Explain that more precise verbs create a more
formal text. Weaker verbs rely on adjectives or
adverbs to make their meaning clear.
• Students explore the use of ‘make/made’ and its
replacement in texts in Resource 5.
• Students identify other weak verbs such as ‘gets’
and ‘goes’ in Resource 5, to produce a chart/class
resource, such as Resource 6: Synonyms for
written-like text and the table below, to record
more precise synonyms for written-like text.
Spoken-like Written-like
make/is made generate, is produced,
create, form
make turn much faster increase the speed,
speed up the rotating
make/build/put
together
construct, assemble,
erect, compose
make dirty/unclean contaminate, infect,
pollute
make me believe/
change my mind
convince, persuade
make stronger reinforce, strengthen
Nominalisation
The shift from an everyday to a more precise verb is
often a necessary and important step for EALD students
as they are learning to use nominalisation. It is much
easier to see the connection and the shift in form, eg:
• generate to generation
• produce to production
• create to creation
• form to formation
• construct to construction.
In addition, when we nominalise a more spoken form,
eg ‘faster’ to ‘speed’, this often requires a new and
more precise verb: ‘make turn faster’ becomes ‘increase
the speed of the turning’. Here, the verb ‘turn’ has
also been changed to the noun form: ‘the turning’.
• Practise using more precise verb choices:
> Provide a list of precise verbs when students
are using accountable talk and text-based
discussions.
> Divide students into 2 expert groups. Each has
a dierent curriculum text on a known topic. In
expert groups, students read the text to identify
and discuss the meaning of topic-specific precise
verbs. They then delete these words to create
a cloze activity or replace them with more
spoken-like phrasal or ‘weak’ verbs. Students
pair up with a student from the other expert
group, swap texts and complete the activities.
16. Saying and mental
processes to incorporate
other viewpoints
In persuasive texts, saying and mental processes
enable us to include the opinions of stakeholders and
experts. By including or excluding various viewpoints
or perspectives, we engage or disengage our
audience as we open up or close down the ‘spaces
for negotiation and entertaining other possibilities’
(Derewianka & Jones, 2016:243)
35
.
In response genres, saying and mental processes
are used to incorporate what is said, thought and felt
by the characters, the author/creator and the reader/
audience.
Engage
• Provide a debate question, eg ‘Should all logging
be stopped?’ or ‘Space exploration is a waste of
money’. Before the lesson, find/prepare 3 to 4
statements from various stakeholders and experts
that argue for and against, as in Resource 7:
Statements for and against: logging.
• Students stand on an imaginary line to indicate
their position on the issue.
• Read a viewpoint from a stakeholder. Students
reconsider their position and move along the line
if their position has shifted.
• Repeat with the other statements, alternating
between arguments for and against.
• Students reflect on how and why they shifted
their position.
• Discuss and document any key points.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Explain that saying and mental processes allow us
to include other perspectives by including what
people say, think and feel about the topic.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
35
Derewianka B & Jones P (2016) Teaching language in context (2nd edn), Oxford University Press: Melbourne
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 53
• Display one of the statements highlighting the saying or mental process:
Mrs Little, a teacher at the local school, hopes that logging will continue in the area. She thinks that the
local jobs it has provided have kept families together in the area, which has saved the school and many
local businesses from closing down. She says, ‘It has made our families and community happier, stronger
and more stable.’
• Students turn and talk to classify the 3 processes as saying or mental, and the mental sub-categories of
thinking and feeling.
• Model asking and identifying:
> who said/thought/felt it: Mrs Little, a teacher at the local school, (she)
> what they said, thought or felt:
Mrs Little, a teacher at the local school, hopes that logging will continue in the area. She thinks that
the local jobs it has provided have kept families together in the area, which has saved the school and
many local businesses from closing down. She says, ‘It has made our families and community happier,
stronger and more stable.’
• Model cutting and pasting the parts of the sentences into a ‘Perspective and viewpoints’ table, indicating a
positive or negative view, as in the examples below drawn from Resource 8:
Perspectives and viewpoints: logging
Whose perspective?
(Who said/thought/
felt it?)
Reporting/quoting
Evidence/viewpoint
(What was said/thought/felt?)
For (+) or
against (-)
Saying verb Mental verb
Mr Big, from Trees
for Life Logging
said ‘Our company creates hundreds of jobs
for locals who would otherwise struggle
to find work in the area.’
+
Medical researchers agree that the loss of plant species is a concern. -
It is important to transcribe accurately and to include quotation marks and ‘that’ if they appear in Resource 7:
this will be needed for the exercise in direct and indirect speech, below.
• In small groups, students analyse and cut up remaining statements, pasting them into the Perspectives and
viewpoints table, above.
• As a whole group, students share and explain their analysis.
• Sort verbs into saying or mental (thinking and feeling verbs). Add any other appropriate examples that students
recall or find in texts they are reading to create an anchor chart of verbs that can be used to quote and report
people’s speech and thought:
Saying
processes
Mental
processes
argue
ask
claim
Thinking Feeling
agree
believe
consider
detest
dislike
enjoy
• Explain that the anchor chart assists in identifying an author’s point of view and exploring whether a text is biased.
• Use the Perspectives and viewpoints table to discuss questions such as:
> Whose views/voices are included? Whose are left out?
> Are some viewpoints given more ‘space’ and, if so, what is the eect?
> Do the saying and/or mental processes chosen for dierent people make a dierence? eg:
– What’s the eect of says vs claims vs states vs reports?
– Who is given a voice through saying processes?
– Who gets to be ‘thinkers’ and who gets to be ‘feelers’? Does this make a dierence?
If so, what is the eect?
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
54 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
– Does it make a dierence who is saying or
thinking it? For example, a general group
such as conservationists as opposed to a
named individual and their role.
• Explain how the table can be used to plan the
evidence and viewpoints they will include in their
texts and to check whether they are presenting
a balanced discussion.
Direct and indirect speech and
thought
• Using the Perspectives and viewpoints table
you created, students look for patterns in the
‘Evidence/viewpoint’ column. Elicit that some
have quotation marks and others begin with
‘that’. Revise direct (quoted) speech and indirect
(reported), eg quotation marks are used to directly
quote speech. When we report speech, we are
not using their exact words, but are ‘indirectly’
paraphrasing what was said.
• Display a picture of a woman labelled Mrs Little
and draw a speech bubble. Label this ‘Direct –
quoted’. Write ‘says’ along the stem connecting
her and her speech bubble. Inside the bubble put
the quoted speech: ‘It seems to have made our
families and community happier, stronger and
more stable.’
• Display a second picture of Mrs Little. Label this
one ‘Indirect – reported’ and write ‘said that’ along
the stem connecting her and the speech bubble.
Think aloud as you check what changes you will
need to make: no quote marks and change the
personal pronoun ‘our’ to ‘their’: ‘It has made their
families and community happier, stronger and
more stable.’
• Now add a thought cloud to the ‘Indirect – reported’
image and write ‘hopes that’ along the stem
connecting Mrs Little and her thought cloud. Involve
students in determining what to write in the cloud:
‘logging will continue in the area’.
• Return to the ‘Direct – quoted’ image and add a
thought cloud. Involve students in determining
what to write in the cloud: ‘I hope that logging will
continue in the area.’ Explain that ‘direct – quoted’
thought is usually only found in personal recounts
or in narratives where a narrator can tell us directly
what is happening inside people’s heads. In other
texts, we need to report speech indirectly or use
a saying process to quote: When asked about the
local logging company, Mrs Little replied, ‘I hope
that logging will continue in the area.’
• Model giving a personal statement about the issue,
eg ‘I worry that logging the forests aects climate
change, which will lead to more bushfires that will
destroy even more of our natural environments’.
• Jointly construct a range of ways of ‘reporting’ this
view, asking:
> How can we say whose view this is? Mr B; our
teacher; Ms Winter; a science and sustainability
teacher; some people; many opponents
of logging; those who are against logging;
environmentalists.
> What saying/mental process could we use?
> What changes do we need to make to the
wording in the statement? For example, delete/
change personal pronoun and ensure verb agrees:
she worries.
> Will we keep it all as one long sentence or break
it into 2 or more parts?
> Will we add anything about what her overall view
on the issue is? For example, Environmentalists
believe that logging forests should be stopped
because it aects climate change. They fear that
continued logging will lead to more bushfires
that will destroy even more of our natural
environments.
• In small groups, each student writes their name on
a blank page, then writes a personal statement on
their view of logging inside a large speech bubble.
Explain that It should be an ‘I statement’ with a
thinking or feeling verb.
• Students take turns ‘saying’ their statement to their
group.
• In their groups, students do the ‘Pass the paper’
activity:
> Everyone passes their paper clockwise to the
next person.
> Read the statement in the speech bubble and
write a new sentence underneath to ‘report’ the
viewpoint. A timer will ring and everyone will
pass their papers to the right again.
> Read the original statement and the reported
version and then write another reported
version. Repeat until students have their original
sheet back.
> Students read all the reported versions of their
statement and discuss the choices in the group.
• Collect the papers, provide comment on adjustments
needed to language/spelling/ punctuation and go
through these as required. Create a class resource
with the sheets.
Consideration of various viewpoints
• In small groups, students discuss an issue and
whose perspectives are important to consider.
They list individuals or groups considering:
> Who is directly involved in/aected by the issue?
> What individuals and groups would you want to
hear from?
> Who might be for/against?
> Who might be indirectly involved/aected?
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 55
• Groups report back to develop a class list of potential perspectives, eg on the issue of school uniforms the
list could include: students, caregivers, school sta, community, fashion designers/manufacturers, uniform
shop owners and employees.
• Elicit that on some issues, there may be dierent positions within one group, eg some students may be for
school uniforms and some against.
• In small groups, students generate ideas of what groups may feel, think or say about the issue, recording
positive and negative feelings, thoughts and speech.
• Create another Perspectives and viewpoints chart for the chosen issue, eg school uniform. Students map
their ideas onto the chart.
• Share and discuss whether this provides a balanced discussion or whether further viewpoints are required:
Perspectives and viewpoints: school uniform
Whose perspective?
(Who said/thought/
felt it?)
Reporting/quoting
Evidence/viewpoint
(What was said/thought/felt?)
For (+) or
against (-)
Saying verb Mental verb
Many students
think
that school uniform is a good thing, as
there is no competition for fashion.
+
Mary Smith, our
school captain
says
‘I like having a school uniform because it
makes my other clothes feel special.’
+
Some year 12
students
say
‘We are against uniforms because we
want to express ourselves.’
-
17. Causal relating processes for more precise relationships
of cause-eect
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Carefully select write or adapt curriculum-related texts that use examples of causal relating processes, eg
Resource 7 with causal relating verbs shown in green italics.
See also 13 ‘Relating processes: expanding choices’ to revise other patterns when using causal relating processes.
• Investigate the role of cause and eect in developing logical arguments, discussions, explanations and
responses. Students read through texts to identify where the text tells them why something happens/has
happened or is predicted to happen.
• Students identify causes and their eects in the text and language that connects them. With a text such as
Resource 7, which has many examples of causal relating processes, students can construct a table as shown
below.
Cause Causal relating process (verb) Eect
Trees for Life Logging creates hundreds of jobs for locals who would
otherwise struggle to find work in the
area.
The logging industry appears to be having a positive eect on the local community.
(It) The logging industry seems to have made our families and community happier,
stronger and more stable.
The logging of forests causes cruel deaths of many native species
and the extinction of up to 50 species
of plants and or animals every day.
Continued on page 56.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
56 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
Cause Causal relating process (verb) Eect
Removing tree roots leads to problems of erosion, land slides and
flooding.
Removing the trees contributes to pollution and climate change.
Logging the forests affects climate change.
which (climate change) will result in more bushfires that will destroy even
more of our natural environments.
Logging of rainforests must be
stopped now
to allow regeneration.
Logging of rainforests must be
stopped now
to ensure a better future for our planet and for
all those living on it.
• Students identify causal relating processes in model text, eg Resource 7 and record on post-it-notes to be
moved and sorted according to categories of meaning. These could be made into a class resource. See also
Resource 8: Verbs to express complex relationships.
• In small groups, students investigate:
> whether words on their list are ‘equivalent’ in meaning: are they interchangeable?
> what happens to the meaning if they swap some that are used in the text?
> what, if any, are the dierences in meaning between words in the same category?
• As students share their findings, make explicit that one dierence in meaning relates to the certainty of the
cause-eect relationship, although this can sometimes be nuanced. Draw up a table to dierentiate this
dierence in meaning in causal relating verbs:
If X happens, Y will happen If X happens, Y will probably happen If X happens, Y might happen
causes leads to contributes to
• Students arrange the words on the table according to the degree of certainty and complete cloze activities
to practise selecting an appropriate causal relating process.
• Students could also discuss whether the meaning implies how soon the eect occurs after the cause: is it
immediate or does it occur over a longer period of time? How might this influence the choice of words?
• Read learning area texts to identify causes/eects; the language that connects them; and explain certainty
(and timing, eg immediate or long-term) of the relationship.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 57
LEVELS 1012 LEAPING TO LEVELS 1314
LEVELS 10–12 LEAPING TO LEVELS 13–14
Learning sequence Language in focus Genres
18. Relating processes
to express complex
relationships
• relating: to express more precise
relationships and shades of meaning
(certainty), including causal
relationships
• interpretations, evaluations
• analyses, research projects and
investigations, eg science
19. Verbs for interpreting
and evaluating: showing
and causing
• saying (showing) to interpret what
something means, shows, indicates
• causal relating to provide evidence
of the eectiveness of decisions
and actions
• investigations, evaluations
• descriptive, compositional and
classifying reports as parts
of macro-genre
20. Saying and mental
processes to cite and
attribute to sources
• mental to express precision and
create dierent levels of subjectivity/
objectivity
• saying to increase formality and
authority; include evidence from
sources; and interpret texts and
findings
• critical literacy: identify balance
and bias
• saying and mental to reveal author
stance
• news/media reports, opinion
pieces
• factorial and consequential
explanations
• expositions: arguments,
discussions, debates
18. Relating processes to express complex relationships
Academic, written-like language
Academic, written-like language is typically dense, expressing abstract relationships. Sentences often comprise
a relating process in between 2 lengthy noun groups built around nominalisations. This requires the use of a
variety of relational verbs as in Resource 8: Verbs to express complex relationships. While these verbs are Tier 2
vocabulary and generally transferable across many contexts, a synonym may not be appropriate in every subject,
eg ‘portrays’ works well in arts, English and history texts, but not in science or mathematics.
Revise
• Display the term relating processes and the symbol.
• Students share what they know about these processes and their role/importance in academic texts, eg
expressing increasing precise and complex relationships.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Provide students a copy of Resource 8 with headings removed.
• Read the text above the table, explaining how words are grouped and where headings were.
• In pairs, then groups of 4, students determine how the words in each category are connected in meaning
and what heading to give to each.
• Groups share their headings for each category. Display the original, deciding as a class, which one/s you will
use for your class resource.
• Remind students that within each category, words are grouped from more everyday to more technical.
• Students reflect on the lists in each category and use a trac light system to code:
> already use (green)
> understand and could set as goal to use (orange)
> unsure when/how to use it (red).
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
58 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
• Students set a goal to use 10 to 12 new words
(orange and/or red) in their speaking and writing.
Discuss how they will track this and achieve
their goal.
• Students play ‘learn from the expert’. They look at
their ‘red’ words and find a classmate, for whom
that word is ‘green’ or ‘orange’.
• Students create glossaries for their ‘orange’ words,
including 1 to 2 examples of where the process is
used. Collate as a class resource. Students add L1
equivalent terms.
• Devise speaking (accountable talk, text-based
discussions) and writing activities (cloze, definitions,
descriptions of diagrams, graphs, results) as contexts
for students to practise their goal vocabulary.
19. Verbs for interpreting
and evaluating: showing
and causing
Verbs used for showing when interpreting and/or
evaluating are not a separate category of processes.
Rather, they are a set of synonyms which,
grammatically, can behave as:
• relating processes connecting 2 participants, eg
His actions signify his growth as a person.
• saying processes projecting another clause, eg His
actions signify // that he has grown as a person;
The results indicate // that spirituality is closely
linked to happiness.
• metaphorical actions showing: The results reveal a
direct correlation between spirituality and happiness.
For this reason, a list of synonyms has been included:
• under ‘interpretation’ in Resource 8
• in Resource 9, including when reporting what the
evidence ‘says’ or ‘shows’.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Generate examples from across the curriculum
where students are required to:
> interpret something, eg a person’s actions; a
text/performance; an artwork; results in an
experiment or a graph; investigation findings
> reflect on and evaluate their knowledge, skill
or process, eg design and production process;
performance in health & physical education;
research project; science or mathematics
investigation.
• Explain that, to meet these academic demands,
students need verbs that will link evidence to
justify their interpretations and evaluations.
Without such verbs, their work will remain at
the level of description without interpretation,
or analysis with unsubstantiated claims.
• Tease out with students what it means to:
> interpret: say what something means, shows
> evaluate their work: provide evidence of the
eectiveness of their actions and decisions:
what did they make, cause?
• Students brainstorm verbs they could use in a
learning area task and document as a shared
resource.
• Discuss choices that are inappropriate for a given
task and why.
• In small groups, students select a range of ‘showing’
verbs from the class or from the relevant sections
of Resource 8 and Resource 9. They sort them
along clines
36
according to:
> strength, eg suggests, implies, indicates,
demonstrates, highlights, verifies, proves
> agreement/disagreement, eg substantiates,
confirms, supports, contradicts, counters,
disproves
• Students practise using the vocabulary through:
> identifying their use in curriculum texts (see
student text extracts below) and annotating
their function
> cloze activities
> interchanging the processes to strengthen or
weaken a position.
Student text extracts
Evaluation of personal performance: food
technology
The banana leaf was not able to be sourced so the
lamb was baked in a foil parcel. This
aected
the
flavour, and the lamb was slightly overcooking. The
banana leaf
would have created
dierent flavours
and
provided
more of a challenge in preparing
the dish. The knowledge I gained from watching
a video clip on the internet
allowed
me to feel
confident in handling the lemongrass and making
decisions about the dressing.
Analysis of results in mathematics investigation
The scatter graph
displays
the mean scores of
the class for each trial. The x-axis
shows
the trial
number and the y-axis
represents
the mean score
of that trial. These plots are
represented
in blue
whilst the red thick line is a trend line. This trend
line moves upwards and therefore
indicates
that
there is improvement after more trials. This data
also
appears to be
negatively skewed as ...
36
Cline: ‘a scale (= set of numbers, levels, etc) on which things can be arranged in order according to a particular feature or quality’,
available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Cline (accessed November 2020).
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 59
20. Saying and mental processes to cite and attribute to sources
The words and thoughts of others are most commonly included through mental and saying processes alongside
quotes or paraphrases. Citations add weight as they provide evidence from reputable sources and from research,
experimentation and statistics. At these levels, students progress to a range of resources for citing sources,
including circumstances of angle and nominalisations
(Humphrey et al, 2011; Derewianka et al, 2016). See 16 ‘Saying
and mental processes to incorporate other viewpoints’ on pages 52 to 54 for teaching and learning activities
that could be done to further revise and consolidate.
37
Revise and engage
• Display labels and symbols for saying and mental processes. Students share:
> what they know about these processes
> their role/importance in academic texts.
• Discuss their role in including various perspectives and providing supporting evidence.
• Provide students with a list of opinions about an issue, eg Resource 7: Statements for and against: logging.
• Brainstorm other saying and mental processes that could be used to cite others in an academic text.
• Create and add to a class anchor chart as you identify and learn to use more alternatives for ‘said’ and ‘think’.
Explain the importance of Tier 2 academic vocabulary that can be used across a range of learning areas.
Resource 9 provides an extensive list.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Gather a range of media texts on a current issue. Students identify saying and mental processes within or
across texts and:
> group them according to categories of ‘meaning – synonyms’
> arrange groups along a cline from everyday to increasingly formal and academic, eg asked: questioned,
queried, inquired, probed; answered: replied, responded, retorted, countered.
• Model skimming through a passage of text (transcript of an oral text) that reports what an individual or group
think, feel or say. Paste examples in a chart with headings. Statements from Resource 7 could be used to
demonstrate this:
Source: high/low status Attributing process Citation: quoted/reported view or evidence
For (+) or
against (-)
Ms Chip, local member
of parliament
High status: politician
stated
‘Australia’s forest industry not only employs
thousands of people, but it also produces
valuable exports. It’s a very important part of
our economy.’
+
Mrs Little, a teacher at
the local school
Medium status:
respected community
member – non ‘expert’
but ‘witness/insider’
hopes that logging will continue in the area
+
thinks
that the local jobs it has provided have kept
families together in the area, which has
saved the school and many local businesses
from closing down.
says
‘It seems to have made our families and
community happier, stronger and more stable.’
Critical literacy – identify balance and bias
• Discuss how authors choose what evidence to include to support and strengthen or to counter and
undermine arguments. Point out that an author’s stance can be revealed by analysing what they include
or exclude and through examining their language choices.
37
See also Circumstances 11 ‘Compacted details of cause and contingency’; Nouns and noun groups
15 ‘Nominalisation: encapsulating speech, thought and key threads’.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
60 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
• Discuss a text by asking, eg:
> how does the author refer to a source? By name? By title or a specialised position? By association with
research or personal experience?
> is any evaluative language used to position the person positively or negatively?
38
Analysing who says what to identify balance and bias
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Students record the views and evidence from a text. In small groups, then as a whole class, discuss whether
a balanced view is presented.
• Provide question prompts to guide discussions, eg:
> how much space/voice is given to the various sides of the issue?
> whose voices/perspectives are included?
> whose voices/perspectives are excluded?
> what are their vested interests?
> what is their status?
> what authority do they have in this issue?
> is there anything in the language choices that increases or decreases the weight of a source?
Vocabulary choices that strengthen or weaken citations
• Model changing the attributing processes. The table below shows alternatives for how a citation could be
attributed. How does the meaning change?
Changed attributing process
Source Attributing process Citation: quoted/reported view or evidence
Ms Chip, local
member of
parliament
• acknowledged
• mentioned
• stated
• emphasised
• stressed
‘Australia’s forest industry not only employs thousands of people,
but it also produces valuable exports. It’s a very important part of
our economy,’
• Students consider:
> does it show support for or undermine what is said?
> does it reveal a stronger or weaker stance from the source or the author?
• In small groups, students select saying verbs from the class resource or Resource 9 and sort them along
clines according to:
> strength: mentioned, suggested, commented, claimed, reported, argued, asserted, insisted
> for, neutral, or against: proclaimed, agreed, approved, stated, objected, challenged, criticised
> objective or emotive: asked, requested, called for, pleaded, insisted, demanded, urged, implored.
• Jointly construct changes to the attributing processes for another source, this time choosing one with mental
processes. Initially, replace with other mental processes (feeling and thinking) and then replace with saying
processes. This may require changes to wording of paraphrase:
Source Attributing process Citation: quoted/reported view or evidence
Mrs Little, local
school teacher
• wants
• hopes
• believes
• stated
logging to continue in the area
that logging will continue in the area
that logging should continue in the area
Mrs Little, local
school teacher
• thinks
• believes
• claims
• asserts
that the local jobs it has provided have kept families together in
the area, which has saved the school and many local businesses
from closing down.
Continued on page 61.
38
See also Evaluative language 13 ‘Judgement and evaluation to show significance’.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 61
Source Attributing process Citation: quoted/reported view or evidence
Mrs Little, local
school teacher
• says
• admits
• declares
‘It seems to have made our families and community happier,
stronger and more stable.’
• In small groups, students use another source and change the attributing processes to strengthen or weaken
a position.
• Provide an assessment task where students are required to cite sources/evidence.
• In small groups and then as a whole class, students discuss what levels of formality would be required in
the task. Students provide examples of appropriate and inappropriate language for the context (register)
justifying their choices, eg ‘scoed’ or ‘lamented’ would be inappropriate in a written argument for science
but may be appropriate for an English media text.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
62 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
Resource 1: Common irregular verbs in English
39
Base form
Simple
past form
Past
participle
Actions
break broke broken
build built built
buy bought bought
catch caught caught
come came come
cut cut cut
do did done
draw drew drawn
dream dreamt dreamt
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
find found found
fly flew flown
get got gotten
go went gone
grow grew grown
hold held held
keep kept kept
put put put
read read read
ride rode ridden
run ran run
sleep slept slept
spell spelt spelt
swim swam swum
take took taken
throw threw thrown
wake woke woken
write wrote written
Base form
Simple past
form
Past
participle
Relating
be was been
have had had
Mental
choose chose chosen
know knew known
think thought thought
feel felt felt
hear heard heard
see saw seen
smell smelt smelt
Saying
say said said
tell told told
39
USA -ed and British ‘t’ spelling patterns for word endings, such as spelled/spelt; smelled/smelt and spilled/spilt.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 63
Resource 2: Example science report template
40
Investigation to find out about grass seeds and water
Our question How much water do grass seeds need to grow?
Materials – What we need
(students can draw the
equipment and label in L1
and English)
• 6 grass heads in pots
• water
• ruler
Method/steps – What to do
(commands)
1. Fill your pot with water.
2. Draw a line on the pot to mark the level of the water.
3. Every day, measure how much the plant grows.
4. Every day, measure how much water you need to fill the
pot with water up to the line again.
How we will make it fair
(future tense)
• We will put the grass heads in the same position
with the same amount of sunlight.
• We will measure the water and plants at the same time
each day.
• We will fill the pot carefully to the same level every day.
• We will write down the measurements every time.
Our results (students might record their results using a table, pictures or written notes)
Day 1 Height of grass Amount of water used
1.
2.
3.
What we did and what we
observed (past tense)
We measured the grass for 12 days.
The grass grew (measurement range) each day.
We added (measurement range) of water each day.
The grass grew a total of …
The grass needed (total measurement) of water.
Answer to our question
(present tense)
Grass seeds need (measurement range) of water each day
to grow.
40
Adapted from Heugh, French, Armitage, Taylor-Leech, Bullinghurst & Ollerhead, 2019:87
64 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
Resource 3: Analysis and commentary of Charlotte’s
Web extract
Teacher notes re identifying
verb groups
Verbs in questions
In English, the grammar used for asking
questions (interrogative form) is formed
by placing an auxiliary carrying the tense
before the subject, and the main verb
after the subject.
An alternative is to use the grammar of
a statement (declarative) or command
(imperative) using a rising intonation as
we can see in Fern’s questions here.
Never
While this is technically an element
of modality, because it has a negative
within it (not ever) it is simpler to see
it as part of the verb group.
Phrasal verbs – TIPS
Can you replace it with one word?
amount to – equal; do away with – kill;
caught up with – reached.
Check a dictionary or thesaurus (word
tool) to see if it is recognised as a verb
and has an entry, acknowledging it as a
unit of meaning. You will need to use the
‘base’ from (simple present) and check
that the meaning matches this context:
add up to, total, come to, make.
Multi-word groups – mental processes
preceding action
Groups such as has decided to do away
with contain a mental process (providing
the internal thoughts/feelings) in
relationship with a second process, in
this case an action. When categorising,
it can be kept as one group (mental) or
broken into 2 parts has decided (mental)
to do away with (action): mean kill is
treated as 2 processes: mean (saying)
and kill (action) and will have to learn
to control is kept together as both
elements are what Fern needs to do.
-ed and -ing adjectives
Not all words ending in -ed or -ing
function as verbs, eg sopping is not
what the sneakers were doing. It
describes their state. Her sneakers
were really wet/soaked. (This can be
checked in a dictionary/thesaurus tool.)
Charlotte’s Web extract –
page 1
‘Where’s Pap going with the axe?’
said Fern to her mother
as they were setting the table for
breakfast.
‘Out to the hoghouse,’ replied Mrs Arable.
‘Some pigs were born last night.’
‘I don’t see why he needs an axe,‘
continued Fern, who was only eight.
‘Well,’ said her mother,
‘one of the pigs is a runt. It’s very small
and weak,
and will never amount to anything.
So your father has decided to do away
with it.’
‘Do away with it?’
shrieked Fern.
‘You mean kill it? Just because it’s
smaller than the others?’
Mrs Arable put the pitcher of cream
on the table.
‘Don’t yell, Fern!’
she said.
‘Your father is right.
The pig would probably die anyway.’
Fern pushed a chair out of the way
and ran outdoors. The grass was
wet and the earth smelled of
springtime. Fern’s sneakers were
sopping by the time she caught
up with her father.
‘Please don’t kill it!’
she sobbed.
‘It’s unfair.’
Mr Arable stopped walking.
‘Fern,’ he said gently,
‘you will have to learn to control yourself.’
Analysis of
tenses used
present continuous
simple past
past continuous
simple past
simple past
(passive voice)
simple present
simple past
simple past
simple present
simple future
present perfect
simple present
simple past
simple present
simple past
(command – base
form)
simple past
simple present
future (predicted
outcome)
simple past
(command – base
form)
simple past
simple present
multi-verb – past:
ended an ongoing
action
simple past
future
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 65
Resource 4: Science investigation – model text
41
Text
structure
Experiment: Spoons and heat
Patterns of
verb groups
Aim Investigation question
What happens to spoons heating up when we
change the material of the spoons?
Simple present
tense – always
Action
Hypothesis What do you think will happen?
I think that the metal spoon will heat up the fastest.
Method
Equipment/
materials
Steps
What do we need?
• 4 spoons (1 plastic, 1 metal, 1 wooden, 1 ceramic)
• 4 tsps of butter or margarine
• 4 beads
• glass beaker
• hot water
What do we do?
1. Stick a bead onto each spoon with 1 tsp of butter
or margarine.
2. Carefully pour hot water into the beaker.
3. Stand all of the spoons in the beaker at the
same time.
Results
Observation
What did we observe?
We noticed that butter on the metal spoon started
to melt first and we saw that the bead on the metal
spoon slid o first. So, we observed that the metal
spoon heated up the fastest.
We noticed that the ceramic spoon heated quickly
too because its bead fell o second.
We observed that the plastic and wooden spoons
heated up slowly because their beads didn’t fall o
for a long time. We saw that the bead on the wooden
spoon fell o last.
Conclusion
Generalisation
What did we find out?
Heat travels through some materials faster and better
than others because some are good conductors and
others are not. Metal is a good conductor of heat
because heat travels through it quickly. Wood and
plastic are poor conductors of heat because heat
passes through them very slowly.
41
Adapted from Rossbridge & Rushton (2015:62—63) and ACARA Australian Curriculum ‘Science Work sample Year 3 Satisfactory:
Investigation – Spoons and heat’, available at http://tlinsa.2.vu/Yr3ScienceSpoons (accessed November 2020).
66 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
Resource 5: Spoken vs written explanation
Spoken science explanation
Wind power is a form of renewable energy
that uses airflow to make electricity. The
electricity is made by a wind turbine – a
machine that gets energy from the wind
and changes it into electrical energy.
The turbine has a set of components:
the blades and their hub and the nacelle
that goes over the shaft, the gearbox and
the generator.
When the wind goes past the turbine, the
gigantic blades move around towards the
wind and turn around on the hub, catching
the wind’s energy. As the hub turns around,
it turns the low-speed shaft that joins onto
the gearbox. The gears inside the box make
the high-speed shaft turn much faster so
that electricity can be made by the generator.
(122 words)
Written science explanation
42
Wind power is a form of renewable energy
that utilises airflow to generate electricity.
The electricity is produced by a wind
turbine – a machine that harvests energy
from the wind and converts it into electrical
energy.
The turbine has a set of components:
the blades and their hub and the nacelle
that cover the shaft, the gearbox and
the generator.
When the wind passes the turbine, the gigantic
blades turn towards the wind and rotate on
the hub, using the wind’s energy. As the hub
rotates, it turns the low-speed shaft that
connects to the gearbox. The gears inside
the box increase the speed of the high-speed
shaft’s turning so that electricity can be
produced by the generator.
(118 words)
42
Adapted from the sample explanation provided in Derewianka B (2020:81).
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 67
Resource 6: Synonyms for written-like text
Everyday, spoken verb choices
put
go to
make/build/put together
make
break apart/fall to pieces
make stronger
stick, join
do
come closer
hurt
swap
keep
clean
catch
wait
leave
use
make dirty/unclean
look for
get
plan
write
have/feel
think, learn
find out
remember
like
make me believe/change my mind
talk about
More precise written-like verb choices
place, insert, attach
attend
construct, assemble, erect, compose
produce, form, generate, create
crumbled, collapse, dissolved
reinforce, strengthen
attach, connect
achieve, succeed, accomplish
approach, edge closer, near
harm, injure, wound, damage
exchange, replace, barter
store, stockpile, collect
cleanse, purify, disinfect, sanitise
capture, arrest, seize
hesitate, pause, delay
evacuate, depart, migrate, relocate
utilise, employ
contaminate, infect, pollute
seek, pursue
gather, obtain, acquire
plot, design, strategize
record, document
experience, undergo
realise, discover, consider
discover, determine, identify
recall, recollect, reflect
enjoy, prefer, appreciate
convince, persuade
discuss, debate, describe, explain
68 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
Resource 7: Statements for and against: logging
For
‘Our company creates hundreds of jobs
for locals who would otherwise struggle
to find work in the area,’ said Mr Big, from
Trees for Life Logging.
‘Australia’s forest industry not only
employs thousands of people, but it also
produces valuable exports. It’s a very
important part of our economy,’ stated
Ms Chip, local member of parliament.
Designers, manufacturers and builders
argue that logging is essential to provide
wood as a raw material. They believe
that wood products are stronger, longer
lasting and far better for the environment
than plastic as well as being more
beautiful.
The logging industry appears to be having
a positive eect on the local community.
Mrs Little, a teacher at the local school,
hopes that logging will continue in the
area. She thinks that the local jobs it has
provided have kept families together in
the area, which has saved the school
and many local businesses from closing
down. She says, ‘It seems to have made
our families and community happier,
stronger and more stable.’
Against
Conservationists report that the logging
of forests causes cruel deaths of many
native species and the extinction of up
to 50 species of plants and or animals
every day.
Medical researchers agree that the loss
of plant species is a concern. Dr Fern
Holloway, from the Australian Medical
Research Institute stated ’Approximately
7,000 medicines prescribed by doctors
have been developed from rainforests
plants.’
‘Logging results in many environmental
challenges and catastrophes’ explains
environmental scientist, Dr Maxwell
Green. ‘Not only does removing tree roots
lead to erosion, land slides and flooding
but removing the trees also contributes
to pollution and climate change. We know
that trees are important to produce oxygen
and absorb carbon dioxide’.
Indigenous forest people claim that not
only are their homes and food sources
being destroyed but so too is their way
of life as they are forced to move to cities.
Many worry that logging the forests
affects climate change, which will result
in more bushfires that will destroy even
more of our natural environments.
Logging of rainforests must be stopped
now to allow regeneration, and ensure
a better future for our planet and for all
those living on it.
Key
Saying/thinking/
feeling verbs in
bold green
Causal relating
verbs in green
italics
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS | 69
Resource 8: Verbs to express complex relationships
Common relating verbs are:
• ‘to be’ (is, are, was, were)
• ‘to have’ (has, have, had)
• ‘to make’ (make, makes, made).
There are many substitutes and metaphors for these relating verbs. Those provided here are grouped according
to meaning, listed from lower to higher language level under relevant headings.
Change in form Name/classification Equivalence Causes Interpretation
becomes
makes
grows into
develops
develops into
forms
produces
shapes
increases
decreases
manifests
ensues from
is called
is known as
belongs to
is classified as
is referred to as
is defined as
is categorised as
is the same as
matches
equals
is equivalent to
represents
expressed as
symbolises
correlates
signifies
epitomises
makes
causes
aects
results in
leads to
produces
creates
brings about
generates
allows
ensures
influences
contributes to
inspires
initiates
sparks
fosters
engenders
ensues from
gives rise to
renders
inaugurates
means
shows
reveals
indicates
signifies
reflects
represents
highlights
implies
mirrors
symbolises
exemplifies
expresses
depicts
portrays
manifests
epitomises
supports
confirms
verifies
validates
substantiates
disproves
contradicts
counters
undermines
Appearance
looks like
seems to be
appears to be
resembles
Stance/certainty Dependence Composition
seems to be
appears to be
is thought to be
is believed to be
is viewed as
is considered
proved to be
is regarded as
is perceived to be
needs
depends on
requires
necessitates
is made up of
contains
includes
possesses
consists of
is composed of
comprises
70 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES VERBS AND VERB GROUPS
Resource 9: Substitutes for ‘said’ – attributing to/
citing sources
Reporting and quoting others Reporting what the evidence ‘says’
accused
acknowledged
added
admitted
advised
agreed
announced
answered
apologised
approved
argued
asked
asserted
called for
challenged
claimed
commented
complained
concluded
confessed
confided
confirmed
continued
contradicted
countered
criticised
declared
demanded
denied
described
directed
disclosed
discussed
elaborated
emphasised
exclaimed
explained
expressed
highlighted
hinted
implored
informed
inquired
insisted
instructed
jeered
lamented
marvelled
mentioned
mused
objected
observed
oered
ordered
persisted
pleaded
praised
predicted
probed
proclaimed
promised
proposed
protested
quarrelled
queried
questioned
quibbled
recalled
recommended
recounted
refused
replied
reported
retorted
responded
scoed
shared
stated
stressed
suggested
urged
uttered
The verbs selected below can behave like
saying verbs and project another clause to
say what is ‘said/shown’.
clarifies (that …)
confirms (that …)
depicts (that …)
demonstrates (that …)
discloses (that …)
disproves (that …)
elucidates (that …)
establishes (that …)
exemplifies (that …)
explains (that …)
expresses (that …)
highlights (that …)
illustrates (that …)
implies (that …)
indicates (that …)
makes clear (that …)
means (that …)
points out (that …)
portrays (that …)
proves (that …)
reveals (that …)
reinforces (that …)
shows (that …)
signifies (that …)
spells out (that …)
suggests (that …)
verifies (that …)
The Department for Education requests attribution as:
South Australian Department for Education | APRIL 2021
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP)
TARGETED STRATEGIES TO ACCELERATE SAE PROFICIENCY
CIRCUMSTANCES
CIRCUMSTANCES: INTRODUCTION 2
Function 2
Form 2
Spoken to written 2
Identifying circumstances: tips 2
LEVELS 1–4 AND LEAPING TO LEVELS 5–6 4
1. Place to add details of where 4
2. Time to add details of when 6
3. Manner: quality to add details of how – in what way/manner? 7
4. Manner: means to add details of how – with what/by what? 8
LEVELS 5–6 LEAPING TO LEVELS 7–9 10
5. More precise details of place, time and manner 10
6. Details of cause to explain and strengthen arguments 12
7. Details of manner, including comparison, to create imagery 13
LEVELS 7–9 LEAPING TO LEVELS 10–12 16
8. Revision of time, place, manner and cause 16
9. Role and angle to add perspective 17
10. Compacted details of cause and eect 19
LEVELS 10–12 LEAPING TO LEVELS 13–14 23
11. Compacted details of cause and contingency 23
Revision of cause-eect 24
Focus on contingency: condition 25
Focus on contingency: concession 25
Resource 1: Circumstances chart 27
Resource 2: The life cycle of an emperor penguin 29
Resource 3: Plastic straws must be banned! 30
Resource 4: An historical account: Australia – whose land? 31
Resource 5: Women garment workers – exploitation or empowerment? 32
2 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES
CIRCUMSTANCES: INTRODUCTION
Function
Ideas can be expanded and developed by adding adverbs, adverbial groups and prepositional phrases to
provide details of circumstances surrounding the process, such as when, where and how. These circumstances
can be categorised according to the type of detail provided. See glossary and Resource 1: Circumstances chart.
Form
Circumstances can take many forms:
• a prepositional phrase — a preposition followed by a noun group, eg into the room
• an adverb, eg reluctantly
• adverb group, eg quite quickly
• other forms such as a noun group, eg the very next day.
Resource 1 shows examples for the most common forms (adverbs and prepositional phrases).
Spoken to written
Students typically learn to use dierent types of circumstances in the order listed in Resource 1. In middle and
senior years, being able to express cause-eect through circumstances becomes very important, along with
role, angle and contingency: these are less common in everyday, spoken language. Cause, role, angle and
contingency are more prevalent in written-like texts. However, there is less overall use of circumstances, as
many of the details are repackaged in complex noun groups.
Accompaniment and matter
LEAP Levels do not include circumstances of accompaniment or matter because they provide little discernible
development so are not useful indicators of SAE proficiency level. However, it is still beneficial to teach students
to identify and include this type of detail, particularly accompaniment. Therefore, reference to accompaniment
is included in some of the learning sequences.
Identifying circumstances: tips
There are 3 main questions to ask:
1. Does it provide extra detail about the process (main verb in clause)?
2. Can it be moved elsewhere in the clause without changing the meaning and without changing the verb form
(from active to passive or vice versa)?
3. Can it be removed and the essence of what is happening still remain?
If it is a circumstance, the answer will always be ‘yes’ for the first question and typically yes for the others, eg:
• I reluctantly crept into the room.
Reluctantly (how) and into the room (where) both add details about crept (1).
• Reluctantly, I crept into the room.
Into the room, I reluctantly crept.
Both can be moved without change to meaning or verb form (2).
• I crept.
Both can be removed and the essence of what happened remains (3).
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES | 3
A list of commonly used prepositions
1
above before by in front of on top of under
across behind close to inside over until
after below down into through up
against beneath during like throughout with
along beside for of to without
among between from o towards
at beyond in on since
1
Adapted from Derewianka, 2011:55.
4 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
LEVELS 14 AND LEAPING TO LEVELS 56
LEVELS 1–4
Learning sequence Language in focus Genres
1. Place to add details
of where
2. Time to add details
of when
• prepositions and prepositional
phrases of place and time
• descriptions, descriptive reports
• narratives
• personal recounts
LEAPING TO LEVELS 5–6
3. Manner: quality to add
details of how – in what
way/manner?
• adverbs of manner: quality – in what
way/manner?
• descriptions, descriptive reports
• narratives
• personal recounts
4. Manner: means to add
details of how – with what/
by what?
• prepositional phrases of manner:
means – how? with what? by what?
• procedures, procedural recounts
• narratives
Suggested mentor texts
Books (bolding indicates that the sequence is based around this text) Learning sequence
Vaughan M (1984) Wombat Stew, Scholastic Australia 1
Hutchins P (1967) Rosie’s Walk, Random House, UK 1
Rosen M & Oxenbury (1989) We’re Going on a Bear Hunt, Walker Books 1
Gleeson L & Blackwood F (2006) Amy and Louis, Scholastic Australia
2
1
Carle E (1969) The Very Hungry Caterpillar, Penguin Putnam 2
French J (2002) Diary of a Wombat, Houghton Miin Harcourt 2
French J & Whatley (2004) Pete the Sheep, Harper Collins 3
Keller H (1997) Grandfather’s Dream, Greenwillow 3
Heller R (1991) Up, Up and Away: A Book About Adverbs, Price Stern Sloan 3
1. Place to add details of where
Metalanguage
When working with students at these lower levels, it is not necessary for students to know and use the
metalanguage, such as clause and circumstance. The aim is to have them develop understanding through
the use of functional questions, eg Where did it happen? and identify patterns in language
using colour or shapes, eg circumstances colour-coded blue or enclosed in blue clouds.
For these early levels of learning, begin asking prompt questions about action processes (not mental, relating
or saying) to elicit or add detail of circumstance.
Initially circumstances will generally be positioned at the end of the sentence. As students develop knowledge
and application, the variable position of circumstances of place can be explored, eg in Wombat Stew, ‘Around
the bubbling billy, Dingo danced and sang …’
3
2
See also Reading Australia work unit, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/raAmyLouis (accessed November 2020)
3
Alternative texts: in addition to the listed mentor texts, the following books from Unite for Literacy – Francis A (2013) Weather,
available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Weather; Hartman H (2013) Who is in the Ocean?, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Ocean;
Cress Z (2013) Where is the Cat?, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/CressCat (all accessed November 2020)
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES | 5
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Engage
• Share a mentor text, such as a narrative or a
descriptive report, which is written predominantly
in simple sentences.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Revisit sentences to identify circumstances of
place. Have the process and participant already
highlighted. Use functional questioning to identify
both the process and the participant before
focusing on the circumstance of place, eg Where
do leopards sleep? Where was Amy? Highlight
in blue.
• Ask students if they can see any patterns in
the sentences. Where do we often find the
circumstances of place? Note the participant,
process, circumstance of place pattern in the
examples below.
• Descriptive factual report: Where Do You Sleep?
4
1. Little leopards sleep in trees.
2. Little bats sleep in a cave.
3. Little snakes sleep under rocks.
• Narrative: Amy and Louis
1. Amy was in the sandpit.
2. She called across the yard.
3. They were at home.
• Create anchor lists of action processes relevant to
specific class topics such as animals, going to the
canteen, sports or actions in which students are
involved at school during play time. Record these
on charts or green ‘action’ cards.
• Read action words and ask: where do they
do these actions? Develop a poster titled
‘Circumstances of place – where does it happen?’
• List common prepositions of place for the students
to begin with, eg:
> on the mat
> in my bedroom
> under the tree
> inside the box
> outside the classroom
> above my head
> beside/next to the lamp
> at the door.
• Model a few examples using the green action
cards, posing questions like ‘Where do you play?’
Students respond: ‘We play on the oval.’
• Expand range of prepositions of place by viewing
and singing along with songs like ‘Where’s the
Monkey?’
5
or other online videos such as ‘Where
is it?’
6
• Play outdoor games to reinforce understanding of
an expanding range of prepositions of place, such
as commands to follow, eg ‘stand on the yellow
line’, ‘step over the rope’, ‘climb up the slide’, ‘swing
across the bridge’, ‘stand between two friends’.
• Read big books like Rosie’s Walk. Students watch
and listen for examples of circumstances of place.
Students place transparent blue sticky notes on the
located circumstances of place in the narrative.
Repeat with a range of texts. In pairs, students
‘hunt down’ examples of where? in picture books
and add to anchor chart.
• Play barrier games linked to a class mentor text
or topic to practise using circumstances of place.
Students use verbal commands to tell their partner
to place a picture card in a specific place on their
board, eg ‘Put the pot on the stove’ or ‘Place the
bat in the cave’.
7
Other barrier games involve
giving instructions to draw pictures. Students
focus on details of place, eg ‘draw a big tree in
the middle of your page’, ‘draw a rabbit under the
tree’, ‘draw four apples in the tree’.
• Use photo prompts of students involved in shared
class activities. Ask what the students were doing
(action process) in each photo and then ask where
they were doing this action (circumstance of place).
Record a simple sentence about each of the photos.
• Using the photos, pairs of students match cards
to create simple sentences (clauses) about the
class activities. Present simple sentences with
action process and participant only. Students
either match to an appropriate blue card with
circumstance of place or write their own detail
of place on a blank blue card, eg Sophia jumped
in the sandpit. Students can be extended with
each language feature, ie participant, process and
circumstance, on separate coloured cards.
• Make puppets linked to class topic. In pairs, use
iPads to create short movies of their puppet’s
adventure in the school yard. Students orally narrate
their own video using circumstances of place.
4
Hartman H (2013) Where Do You Sleep?, Unite for Literacy, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Sleep (accessed November 2020)
5
Daily Motion, ‘Where’s the Monkey?’, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/MonkeyWhere (accessed November 2020)
6
Maple Leaf Learning, ‘Where is it?’, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Where (accessed November 2020). There are several in this
series focusing on dierent prepositions.
7
See examples on the Talking Matters website, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/TalkBarrierGames (accessed November 2020).
6 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
• Using their puppet adventure movie or a familiar
mentor text like Rosie’s Walk as a prompt, students
use the same pattern to make a book about
themselves and their walk around the school yard, eg:
> Achol skipped around the tennis courts.
> Achol skipped through the butterfly garden.
> Achol skipped across the school oval.
2. Time to add details of when
Circumstances of time
Prepositional phrases also provide details of time –
When did it happen? (eg The Very Hungry Caterpillar
introduces the days of the week as circumstances of
time; Diary of a Wombat explores details of time such
as morning, afternoon, evening and night).
A prepositional phrase beginning with ‘on’ is used
with a named day or the weekend.
A prepositional phrase beginning with ‘in’ will give
information about:
• the period of the day – in the morning, in the
afternoon
• the week or month – in the first week, in May
• the period identified – in the holidays, in the first
week of school.
‘At’ is used for other periods, eg at night, at sunset
or at one o’clock.
Engage
• Display and read a recount based on a shared class
experience.
• Discuss when the events took place. How do we
know what occurred first? Are there any clues to
help us?
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Create an anchor chart of action processes based
on this and other shared experiences. Create a set
of green ‘action’ cards for each action process.
• Create an anchor chart with students headed
‘Circumstances of time – when?’ and list common
examples, eg on the weekend, on Sunday, at recess,
at lunchtime, today, this morning, this afternoon,
after lunch, last night, at 3 o’clock. Examples found
in familiar texts can also be added to this list.
• Explain that when we recount an event, we usually
begin with a circumstance of time, telling the
reader/listener when this happened.
• Display phrase ‘At recess’ or ‘At lunchtime’. Students
tell a partner one thing they did at that time.
• Pairs record their sentences, using them to identify
the action and the doer. Repeat and adapt over
several days as a morning routine sharing what
they did last night; an end of day routine; or one
thing they did at school, choosing an appropriate
circumstance of time to begin. Or use as a Monday
routine relating one thing students did on the
weekend.
• Read The Very Hungry Caterpillar together. Discuss
the clues that tell us when the caterpillar ate certain
things. Where do we find these clues?
• Match circumstances of time to clauses or events
presented on cards out of order, eg:
On Monday he ate through one apple.
• Model recording a class diary using the days of the
week as a structure. Using this as a model, students
create a diary of their activities over a week using
drawings and/or text.
• Model recount writing, based on a shared
experience. Use the ‘think aloud’ strategy to elicit
circumstances of time to sequence events. In a
following lesson, the order of these events can
be mixed up. Encourage students to discuss and
explain how the circumstances of time can be
used for creating a logical sequence.
• Provide pairs/groups of students with photos from
other shared experiences. Cards are mixed up and
students match colour-coded cards to photos
beginning with only the circumstances of time.
Students can then use participant, process and
circumstance of place cards to form simple
sentences:
Circumstance
of time
Participant Process
Circumstance
of place
On Monday
morning
our class ran
around the
school oval.
After recess we walked
to our buddy
class.
In the
afternoon
my class relaxed
in our
classroom.
• Alternatively, students can record part/all of their
own sentences.
• Provide visual prompt cards for: When? Where?
Who with? In small groups, share what they did,
with others listening for these details. If a detail is
not included, a listener asks for the missing detail,
eg When did you go? Who did you go with?
Where did you play?
• Read Diary of a Wombat. As detectives, students
hunt down the circumstances of time in the
story, using transparent blue sticky notes to place
over the examples. Record the examples and
encourage students to experiment orally using
them in relation to events occurring during the
school day or at home, eg in the morning, in the
afternoon, in the evening, at night time.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES | 7
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
• Provide activities where students build
sentences using the parts of a clause, including
circumstances of time (and place if introduced),
on colour-coded cards. Sentences can be linked
to shared texts/topics or shared activities, eg In the
morning, wombat slept in his burrow.
• Revisit The Very Hungry Caterpillar and collectively
rewrite by adding more specific circumstances of
time, eg On Monday morning, he ate through one
apple or On a cold and rainy Monday morning, he
ate one apple.
• In pairs, students create books or movies based
on the same pattern, choosing dierent animals
and foods.
LEAP Levels do not include circumstances of
accompaniment – who/with what? because they
provide little discernible development so are not
useful indicators of SAE proficiency level. However,
it is still beneficial to teach students to include this detail.
Students create a poster headed ‘Circumstances of
accompaniment’ using the preposition with and list
common examples, eg with mummy and daddy, with
my dog, with class 3G, with the principal, with all the
children under eight years old.
3. Manner: quality to add details
of how – in what way/manner?
Circumstances of manner: quality
8
Circumstances of manner: quality answers the
question, ‘How was it done?’
These are typically expressed through adverbs, eg:
• How does Jiya dance? She dances gracefully.
• How does Andy run? He runs quickly.
• How do leopards hunt? They hunt silently.
• How does your car go? It goes really fast.
Note that ‘really’ is an intensifier, working to modify
the adverb ‘fast’ in an adverb group: really fast.
Engage
• Students mime action processes, like walking,
swimming, dancing, climbing, painting and writing.
• Ask them to change how they do these actions, eg
walk quickly then slowly then gracefully then heavily.
• View cartoons and short animations identifying
how characters move, talk, etc.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Create a list of action processes drawn from
engagement activities and record on green
‘action’ cards.
• With the students, develop an anchor chart titled
‘Circumstances of manner – how?’ using their
collated list of action processes as a prompt.
• Look at visuals related to class activities and jointly
create simple sentences including circumstances
of manner, eg:
> Jon writes carefully.
> Kuol runs quickly.
> Dana dances beautifully.
• Point out that these are adverbs (form) acting as
circumstances (function).
• Draw attention to the ‘ly’ sux commonly found
in adverbs. Explore examples that do not follow
this pattern as well, eg ‘fast’.
• Explain that in these adverbs as circumstances
of manner, the ‘ly’ is added to the adjective to
describe how something/an action is done.
• Compare how people or characters are described
with adjectives but actions are described with
adverbs, eg:
> Kuol is quick. (quick is the adjective that tells us
about Kuol)
> Kuol runs quickly. (quickly is the adverb that
tells us more about the action – explains how
the action is done).
• Read Sea Life MOVES! recalling ‘how’ the sea
creatures moved. Examine each page with a
question such as ‘Can you swim like a seal?’
Ask: ‘How does a seal swim?’
• Students share responses and record examples
on blue cards, which can be added to an anchor
chart, eg:
> A seal swims quickly.
> A seal swims energetically.
> A seal swims gracefully.
Students may also respond with ‘circumstances of
manner: means’, eg on two legs, with its tail. Accept
these and point out they are prepositional phrases
acting as circumstances rather than adverbs. Stress
that many dierent forms of words and phrases can
do the job/function of a circumstance.
8
In addition to the mentor texts referred to above, see also Holmes S & Wenger A (2018) Sea Life MOVES!, Unite for Literacy, available
at http://TLinSA.2.vu/SeaLifeMoves (accessed November 2020). This may provide an ideal prompt for how animals move.
Modelling some actions may be necessary to introduce students to new vocabulary and meanings.
8 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
• Share picture books, locating and highlighting
circumstances of manner using transparent blue
sticky notes. Build a collection with students
and create an anchor chart titled, ‘Circumstances
of manner – how?’ Pete the Sheep has many
examples, such as happily, quickly, excitedly, sadly,
comfortingly, properly, sheepishly, hopefully.
• Revisit The Very Hungry Caterpillar. Ask the students
how they think he may have eaten the food like
plums and apples. Brainstorm and record possible
adverbs to provide detail around the action
process ‘ate’, eg noisily, slowly, quickly, politely,
sloppily.
• Rewrite each page of The Very Hungry Caterpillar
with the students choosing the adverbs. Students
‘act out’ the story as it is read aloud, eg On Monday,
he ate through one apple slowly.
• In pairs, students create another text based on the
same pattern but with alternative animals and foods.
Students act out then draw each part depicting
what the animal eats. Students add verbally or in
written text, eg On Monday, the girae munched
grass slowly.
Extend by adding circumstances of manner to other
action and saying processes. Students act out the
actions, eg walked slowly vs walked quickly, shouted
angrily vs shouted with joy.
4. Manner: means to add details
of how – with what/by what?
Circumstances of manner: means
Circumstances of manner: means also answers the
question, ‘How was it done?’ Here, though, we are
not concerned with the quality, but rather, ‘By what
means or with what was it done?’ Circumstances of
manner: means has the meaning of ‘What did you
use to do it?’
• How did you stir the soup? I stirred it with a spoon.
• How did you come to school? I came by bike.
These circumstances are again in the form of
prepositional phrases, rather than adverbs.
Engage
• Students play with and explore a range of kitchen
utensils, naming each and identifying its purpose
or action.
• Follow simple recipes together which use some
of these utensils, examining actions for each.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Read Stir, Sift, Slice
9
. Locate the action processes
on each page (sift, stir, slice, whisk …). Create green
cards for each one, adding others from initial
explorations and cooking activities.
• Provide a variety of utensils and sit around them
in a circle. Oer sentence prompts from the book
or from shared activities such as Who will stir the
batter?, then ask one student to find the matching
utensil and show the class the action it is used
for. Ask the class: ‘How is Min stirring the batter?’
Students respond: ‘Min is stirring the batter with
a wooden spoon.’ Repeat with dierent utensils.
• Create colour-coded cards for steps in
procedures, eg:
Procedures
Slice the tomatoes with a knife.
Hit the ball with a cricket bat.
Cut the card with scissors.
Sentences have dierent colour patterns related to
genre/purpose. Commands in a procedure begin
with the action process. The ‘doer’ participant is
omitted (assumed – you).
Recounts
Branka sliced the tomatoes with a knife.
Min drew a picture with crayons.
Dan came to school by bus.
Akuac went home by car.
In procedural and personal recounts there is a
participant (the doer – Branka, Min, Dan and Akuac)
in front of the action process.
• Students build sentences using the various
parts of a clause, including circumstances of
manner: means. Use colour-coded cards for
each functional group. In pairs, students make
sentences linked to shared experiences or from
procedural texts they have read and followed.
• Students complete cloze tasks based on shared
experiences or procedural texts, eg Slice the
tomatoes ________; Grate the cheese ________.
• Students create their own sentences, including
‘Circumstance of manner’ (with what?) and act
out for other students to guess, eg Scratch your
nose with your pinkie finger; Rub your stomach
with your left hand.
9
Lawrence G (2015) Stir, Sift, Slice, Unite for Literacy, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/StirSiftSlice (accessed November 2020)
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES | 9
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
• Extend students by combining tasks where they
need to use or locate a range of circumstances,
eg Slice the tomatoes thinly with a serrated knife
(thinly = manner/quality; with a serrated knife =
means).
Extension
Once students understand the purpose of using
details of circumstance, repeat similar activities
using compound and complex sentences as well as
increasingly denser texts across genres, eg explore
narratives to locate how authors use circumstances
of manner (by what means?) such as Wombat Stew.
Students act out these actions:
• ‘So Platypus scooped up big blops of mud with his
tail and tipped them into the billycan.
• ‘So Lizard snapped one hundred flies from the air
with his long tongue // and flipped them into the
gooey chewy stew.’
• ‘I’m brewing up a gooey, chewy stew with that fat
wombat,’ replied Dingo with a toothy grin.
Circumstances of manner: means or quality?
with that fat wombat is manner: means – with what?
By what means? Dingo was using wombat to make
a stew.
with a toothy grin is manner: quality – how? In what
manner, with what quality? Dingo was not using a
toothy grin to reply.
Circumstances of place
Examples also include circumstances of place as
indicated by underlining.
10 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
LEVELS 56 LEAPING TO LEVELS 79
LEVELS 5–6 LEAPING TO LEVELS 7–9
Learning sequence Language in focus Genres
5. More precise details of
place, time and manner
• circumstances of:
> place and time, including as
sentence opener to orient to
new stage
> manner
> quality: in what way/manner?
> means: by/with what means?
• narratives
• sequential explanations
6. Details of cause to explain
and strengthen arguments
• cause – why?:
> behalf: for whom/on whose
behalf?
> reason: for what reason?
> purpose: for what purpose?
• explanations
• expositions: arguments
7. Details of manner,
including comparison,
to create imagery
• manner:
> quality: in what way/manner?
> means: by/with what means?
> comparison: like what?
• descriptive and comparative
reports
• narratives
• recounts
Suggested mentor texts
Books (bolding indicates that the sequence is based around this text) Learning sequence
Jenkins M (1999) The Emperor’s Egg, Walker Books 5
Yolen J (1987) Owl Moon, Philomel Books 7
Wild M & Brooks R (2000) Fox, A & U Children 7
Winton T (1997) Blueback, Penguin
10
7
5. More precise details of place, time and manner
The Emperor’s Egg combines factual information about emperor penguins in a narrative. This invites a discussion
about picture books and narratives not always being purely fictional, but also able to provide information or
instruct about particular topics.
Engage
• Share the picture book The Emperor’s Egg.
• Revise circumstances of place, time and manner. Students locate examples of each in the text on the second
reading, using transparent blue sticky-notes to identify, eg for two whole months (time), in the freezing cold
(place), with his egg (accompaniment), very, very slowly (manner).
• Extend students’ knowledge and technical language related to the topic by viewing short online documentary
clips such as:
> ‘Baby Emperor Penguins emerge from their shells’
11
> ‘Amazing animal babies: Emperor Penguin chicks’
12
.
• Illustrate the stages of the life cycle and match with technical verbs/action processes, eg incubate, hatch.
10
See also Rossbridge & Rushton (2015), which uses Blueback in a unit of work on writing to evoke feelings through figurative
language. It contains many examples of circumstances of comparison, beginning with ‘like’.
11
Nature on PBS, ‘Baby Emperor Penguins emerge from their shells’, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/PenguinsHatch (accessed
November 2020)
12
BBC Earth Unplugged, ‘Amazing animal babies: Emperor Penguin chicks’, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/AmazingPenguins
(accessed November 2020)
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES | 11
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Read the sequential explanation in Resource 2:
The life cycle of an emperor penguin. Students
compare this text to the narrative The Emperor’s
Egg.
You may also choose to examine, highlight and
make a chart of action processes in the text and in
doing this, guide students to identify the pattern of
present tense
13
.
• Examine sentence beginnings with students to see
what they notice, eg use of circumstances of time.
Discuss this pattern of sentence beginnings and
the role it plays in orienting the reader to each
stage of the life cycle. Compare to the use of the
subordinating conjunction ‘when’ beginning
paragraph 3 to indicate ‘time’.
• Students sequence a cut up life cycle text. They
explain what helped them to reassemble the text.
List the circumstances of time used to begin
sentences and paragraphs.
Punctuation and intonation
Point out that when a circumstance of time begins a
sentence to orient the reader, a comma is used after
it. Make the link with intonation and model reading
the sentence with a comma after a circumstance
of time.
• Find the action processes in the text. Use functional
questioning around the process to guide students
to identify the circumstances and highlight them
blue, eg Where does the new chick peck? Students
respond with ‘at the egg-shell’. You may focus on
one type of circumstance at a time:
> time: When does it happen? (In winter, By the
end of the year)
> place: Where? (onto his feet, at the egg-shell)
> manner: How? (repeatedly, with its beak).
Circumstances of accompaniment
There are also 2 circumstances of accompaniment
in the text, answering, With who/what? (on its own,
with other chicks). If your students already know this
type of circumstance, you may wish to identify them
too. Alternatively, you could simply let them know
that there are other kinds of circumstances in the
text, but you are not focusing on them, as they are
not a key feature in sequential explanations.
• Classify the jointly identified circumstances in the
text with a partner using a chart:
Circumstances …
of time
When?
of place
Where?
of manner
How? With what?
In winter onto his feet with its beak
• Read a similar text containing matching visuals
which students are familiar with, eg chicken life
cycle. In pairs, students locate and highlight all
circumstances in blue.
• Provide clauses from the text containing only the
participant (‘doer’) and the process. If there is
a second participant—a ‘done to’, as in the first
example below—include that too. These can be
on coloured cards, eg:
> The hen lays approximately 12 eggs.
> The hen sits.
> The chick pecks.
• First, students organise the clauses into the order
of the life cycle. Ask, ‘Do the clauses provide
enough information to do this? If not, what is
missing? What could they add to create more
detailed sentences?’
• In pairs, students locate circumstances of time
to sequence the text in order. They write these
on blue cards and add to the sentence. Repeat
for circumstances of place and manner, eg:
> The hen lays approximately 12 eggs in a safe
place (place).
> The hen sits quietly (manner) on her clutch of
eggs (place).
> After 21 days (time), the chick pecks at the egg-
shell (place) with its egg tooth (manner: means).
• Students classify blue cards, using the functional
questions or the technical term, eg When? Time;
Where? Place; How? Manner.
• Reinforce how a range of circumstances (details
about when, where, with whom, with what
and how) provides detail to fully explain a life cycle
or topic. Read the text without the circumstances
to illustrate this.
13
See also Verbs and verb groups ‘Grammatical accuracy: control of the verb group and tense’.
12 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES
6. Details of cause to explain
and strengthen arguments
Circumstances of cause – why?
There are several sub-categories:
• for whom/on whose behalf? (for our planet)
• for what purpose? (for their celebration)
• for what reason? (due to the fading light, because
of poor health, as a result of pollution).
Students typically begin to use the preposition ‘for’
in circumstances of cause (behalf and/or purpose)
at Levels 7–8. Moving to Level 9 and beyond, they
begin to use circumstances of cause: reason. A focus
on this sub-category and associated prepositions
supports students to develop their language
proficiency. In addition, it helps them extend and
logically connect ideas as they read and begin to
construct more complex arguments and explanations.
Engage
• Introduce and discuss the mentor text in Resource
3: Plastic straws must be banned! Identify the main
ideas or arguments and how the author presents
information about the topic.
• Ask, ‘What techniques or vocabulary does the author
use to provide detail and convince their audience?’
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Revisit existing knowledge of ways to express
circumstances of place, time, accompaniment
and manner.
• Use a retrieval chart for classifying circumstances
in the Resource 3 text, adding a column for ‘cause’:
Circumstances …
of time
When?
of place
Where?
of manner
How? With
what?
of cause
Why?
• Explain that providing reasons or evidence in
an argument is an important way to convince
an audience.
• Reasons can be expressed through another form
of circumstance called cause or why something
happens (the reason, the purpose, or on whose
behalf).
• Place sentences adapted from the text on cards
or on an interactive board so they can be
manipulated, eg:
> People all over the world
use plastic drinking straws.
Why?
> Our environment is in danger. Why?
• For each clause, ask the question ‘Why?’, eg Why
do people all over the world use plastic drinking
straws?
• Record student responses, eg because it is cleaner,
because it’s healthier, because it’s easier.
At this stage, students will likely respond with a
subordinate clause, typically beginning with ‘because’,
‘so that’ or ‘to’. It is, therefore, important to teach
about the dierence between circumstances to express
cause and using subordinate clauses
14
.
• Identify the 2 verbs in this sentence, eg People
all over the world use plastic drinking straws //
because it is easy.
• Point out that because is the subordinating
conjunction. It connects a subordinate clause,
which supports and elaborates on the main clause,
telling us ‘why’ people use plastic straws.
• Discuss a strategy to make this sentence more
formal and concise, sounding more authoritative
and convincing to an audience.
• Ask them to reread the text and locate the
example in it:
People all over the world
use plastic drinking straws
for convenience.
• Add, the circumstance of cause either on a blue
card or reveal on the interactive screen.
• Examine the phrase for convenience. Ask students
to identify a connection between ‘it is easy’ and
‘for convenience’. Do they know another word
that means something is easy or simple? Use the
example of buying takeaway meals. How does this
make things easy? Explain that we would say that
this is ‘convenient’: it is quick and no-one has to
cook or clean up.
• Explain that ‘convenient’ is an adjective.
• Model how to change it into a noun, using ‘think
aloud’ to explain process, eg People often prefer
takeaway meals because they are convenient.
People often prefer takeaway because of/for the
convenience.
14
See Sentence structure 4 ‘Complex sentences with because, so that and non-finite ‘to + verb’’.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES | 13
Nominalisation
Many students will need support to nominalise
through a 2-step process:
1. shift to a more formal or technical adjective or verb
2. change to a noun, eg:
Simple
adjective
Precise
adjective
Noun:
nominalisation
easy convenient convenience
Tips for nominalising
• Using the prepositions: for and because of will help
lead into a noun/noun group.
• A noun can be preceded by an article: ‘a’, ‘an’ or
‘the’ or a possessive such as ‘its’ or ‘their’.
Support students with sentence starters beginning
with the following prepositions:
• For …
• Due to …
• Because of …
• As a result of …
Prepositions due to and as a result of are typically
used beyond Level 9. However, when focusing on
circumstances of cause, it is useful to provide a wider
range of prepositions to form them. Students would
also be seeing and hearing them in learning area texts.
• Introduce or reinforce the term nominalisation as
the name of this process of turning another word
into a noun.
• Examine other examples of cause using a subordinate
clause and then expressed as a circumstance.
In the table below, the first column shows the
subordinate clause with 2 verb groups (thus 2
clauses). The second column shows the causal
circumstance: one verb group, one clause.
In history
Because the people
were starving, // they
moved to the cities.
>
Because of the
famine, people
migrated to the city.
In science
Our natural forests
are in danger // as
they are being cut
down at a rapid rate.
>
Due to deforestation,
our natural forests
are in danger.
In these examples, nominalisation
15
is achieved by
changing verbs into nouns:
• were starving/famine
• are being cut down/deforestation.
• Discuss the context and eect of these dierent
choices.
• In pairs, students work to expand on simple
sentences. Provide blue cards to use for their
alternative details of circumstances of cause.
Provide a small list of possible ‘starters’, eg for …,
due to …, because of …, as a result of. Student
examples may include:
People all over the world
use plastic drinking straws
for health reasons.
• Repeat for other examples in pairs and then
individually.
• Extend understanding by sorting sentences related
to class learning context. In groups, students sort
sentence strips containing circumstances expressed
as cause: reason (Why?), purpose (What for?), and
behalf (Who for?), eg:
> Due to water pollution, Why?
many sea creatures will die. (reason)
> Communities clean up the Why/what for?
beaches for species survival. (purpose)
> We joined the clean-up day Who for?
for our local community. (behalf)
7. Details of manner, including
comparison, to create imagery
Circumstances of manner: comparison
From Level 9 on, students begin to include
circumstances of manner: comparison (a subset
of manner).
16
Functional questions
Circumstances of manner: comparison answer the
functional questions: Like what? Compared to what?
to provide details about the process, eg They speak
like what? They act compared to what?
Typical prepositions used are:
• Like …
• Unlike …
• As … as a …
Similes are literary devices used to compare 2
dierent things to show similarity. The words ‘like’
and ‘as’ are used to show this. When they compare
the verb/process, eg He ran like …, they function as
circumstances of manner.
15
See Noun and noun groups 11 ‘Nominalisations to build technicality’.
16
In addition to the texts listed on page 10, see also Holmes S & Wenger A (2018) Sea Life MOVES!, Unite for Literacy,
available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/SeaLifeMoves (accessed November 2020).
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
14 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Engage
• Remind students how authors use circumstances
to enrich descriptions.
• Revise dierent kinds of circumstances of manner
that tell us how and introduce comparison:
> manner: quality (how – in what way? slowly)
> manner: means (how – with what? with their
long trunk)
> manner: comparison (how – like what? like a
mouse, as quietly as a mouse)
• Explain that circumstances of manner: comparison
add detail and help us visualise how a process is
done by comparing it to something else.
• Provide and generate examples with the students, eg:
> She ran like the wind.
> He sat as still as a rock.
> Unlike his fidgety brother, he was still and calm.
• Begin by reading the text Sea Life MOVES!
• Revisit circumstances of manner: quality by
identifying and listing the adverbs of manner (how:
quality) used to express ‘how’ an animal moves,
eg A shark swims slowly and easily. Ask: ‘How does
a shark swim?’ They respond: ‘slowly and easily’.
• Students act out how each animal in the text
moves, eg elephant – heavily, loudly, powerfully;
monkey – energetically, noisily; tortoise – slowly,
gradually, little by little.
• Look at the sentence in the text commanding the
students to ‘wave your arms like the tentacles of
an anemone’. Ask students to act this out.
• Ask: ‘Does the text tell us how to wave? Is there an
adverb or circumstance of manner telling us how
this should happen?’ Elicit that the reader needs
to know about how that animal moves, as they
are not directly told in the text. Instead of using a
circumstance of manner: quality, sometimes authors
use a circumstance of manner: comparison to
show/infer (not directly tell us) how the action is
done. These comparisons help create vivid images
for the reader.
• Consider other ways to complete the sentence, eg
Wave your arms like:
> a tree in the wind
> an energetic reception student in the school
yard.
• Use other parts of text, creating alternative
comparisons, eg:
> Jellyfish pulse and billow like laundry in the wind.
> Jellyfish pulse like your heart.
> Jellyfish billow like plastic bags in the street.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Examine a range of visuals and/or short animations
of actions, such as those in the table below, and have
students name the action process, eg running:
Clause with action
Circumstance of
manner: comparison
He was running as fast as a cheetah.
The boy scouts were
marching
like soldiers.
Low in the grass, the
lion watched the zebra
and waited
as still as a statue.
The white sheet was
billowing in the air
like a ghost.
• Pose questions to match circumstances of
manner: comparison, eg ‘How is this person
running?’ Students respond: ‘as fast as a cheetah.’
• Make explicit the inferred circumstance of
manner: quality by asking, ‘How does a cheetah
run?’ Students respond: ‘really fast/quickly’.
• Explain that how the person is running is being
compared to how a cheetah runs. So, we know
they ran quickly without being told directly.
• Create an anchor chart titled ‘Circumstances
of manner: comparison’.
• Students add to the chart as they discover more
examples to support their writing.
• Read Owl Moon. Students listen for examples
of circumstances of manner: comparison.
• Highlight on the text using transparent blue sticky-
notes, eg:
> (the owl) … lifted o the branch like a shadow
without sound
> The trees stood still as giant statues.
• Introduce the use of ‘unlike’ as a circumstance of
manner: comparison to indicate dierence and
locate examples in texts.
• Experiment with its use in students’ own sentences
about themselves, eg:
> I love to play cricket unlike my classmate Nyok.
> Unlike her best friend, Shreya loves to dance.
> Min loved to play at the warm beach unlike
her cousins. They preferred to hike in the cool
mountains.
> Unlike us, Jon’s family camps regularly.
Punctuation and intonation
At this point, teach the use of the comma when the
circumstance of comparison begins the sentence to
orient the reader to the message. Make the link with
intonation and model reading the sentence with a
comma after a circumstance of manner: comparison.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES | 15
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
• Complete cloze tasks by adding circumstances of
manner: comparison to enhance description of
sentences. In pairs, students record these on blue
cards and add to the clause:
She was waving her
arms around
like
Unlike
,
I helped mum with the
dishes every night.
His hammer flew
through the air
like
Creeping amongst the
trees
like
he searched for his
friends.
Like
the kitten leapt from the
top of the bookcase.
Extend the learning
• Use the text Fox to investigate how authors use
circumstance of manner: comparison.
• Look at the pictures of the character Fox. Students
brainstorm what they know about how a fox moves.
• Look at the page with the text ‘He (Fox) flickers
through the trees like a tongue of fire …’
• Ask students to identify the action process by
asking ‘What is Fox doing?’
• Discuss the meaning of this choice of action verb,
eg compare to a candle flickering.
• Ask students to identify the circumstance of
manner: comparison ask, ‘How does Fox flicker?’
Students respond, ‘like a tongue of fire’.
• Connect this to the colour of a fox as described in
the preceding sentence (Fox with his … rich red coat).
Fox is an ideal text to use to locate a range of
circumstances which the author uses to build a strong
sense of place, time, accompaniment and manner.
• Retrieve and record examples from the text onto
a chart:
Circumstances …
of time
When?
of place
Where?
of manner
How?
With
what?
of manner:
comparison
How? Like
what?
Days,
perhaps a
week later
…
Through
the
charred
forest,
over hot
ash …
He runs so
swiftly
He flickers
through the
trees like a
tongue of
fire
Links to other genres
Identify and experiment in other genres, eg:
• Recounts:
> I ran like the wind all the way to my dad’s
house.
> Like my friends, I played on my DS on the
weekend.
> I helped mum with the party preparations,
unlike my lazy sister.
• Descriptive and comparative reports:
> Like many other desert species, the fat-tailed
dunnart has adapted to the hot, dry conditions
of the desert.
> Just like orangutans, gorillas build nests in trees.
> Unlike Sydney, Adelaide did not begin as a
penal colony.
16 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES
LEVELS 79 LEAPING TO LEVELS 1012
LEVELS 7–9 LEAPING TO LEVELS 10–12
Learning sequence Language in focus Genres
8. Revision of time, place,
manner and cause
• place
• time, including as sentence opener
to orient to new stage
• manner:
> quality: in what way/manner?
> means: by/with what means?
• cause – why?
> reason: for what reason?
> purpose: for what purpose?
• historical accounts
• biographies
• explanations
9. Role and angle to add
perspective
• circumstances of:
> role: in what role? as what?
> angle: in whose view? according
to whom?
• historical accounts
• expositions: discussions, debates
• issues analyses
10. Compacted details of
cause and eect
• cause:
> behalf: for whom/on whose
behalf?
> reason: for what reason?
> purpose: for what purpose?
• historical accounts
• expositions: discussions, debates
• issues analyses
Model text
All learning sequences at these levels use examples taken or adapted from 2 model texts:
Resource 4: An historical account: Australia – whose land?
Verbs and verb groups: Resource 8: Statements for and against: logging
8. Revision of time, place, manner and cause
Use a model text with dierent kinds of circumstances, such as the historical recount in Resource 4.
Circumstances of manner are not colour-coded in Resource 4. Use it to:
• revise the various categories and sub-categories and discuss their functions
• focus attention on other categories of circumstances that are key to developing and demonstrating deep
learning area knowledge and understandings.
Revise
• Ask students what they know about circumstances, eg they:
> provide more detail about the process (verb group)
> are usually in the form of adverbs, adverbial groups or prepositional phrases
> have dierent categories and sub-categories of circumstances to answer dierent questions.
• Use a chart, such as Resource 1, to revise the categories of circumstance, their function and examples of
probe questions. Students identify and categorise circumstances in a model text, eg Resource 4.
In the table on page 17, prepositions to begin phrases are bolded and adverbs are in italics.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES | 17
Time Place Manner Cause
• Specific time and
duration to locate
events on timeline.
• Chronology is
important in history.
• Some begin sentences
to orient to timeline.
• Specific place – refer
to areas of Australia:
the contested space.
• Quality and means.
• Often have an evaluative
flavour and infer +ve
or -ve judgement.
• Reason and purpose to
explain why. Important
in history (purpose
of historical account)
to know why events
happened as they did.
• Many begin sentences
to orient to cause.
At the time of the arrival
of the English in the 18th
century
For thousands of years
On January 26, 1788
from 1794 to 1816
in the 19th century
into the first half of the
20th century
In 1983
following a ten year battle
in June 1992
today
in the area now called
Sydney
across the country
in some parts of Australia
into neighbouring clan
lands
in their territory
in harmonious
connection with the land
without the need to pay
or conquer anyone
in cold blood
forcibly
in new partnerships
through intertribal
gatherings
because of their belief in
‘terra nullius’
for hunting, fishing and
crop cultivation and
harvesting
Due to the nature of
Aboriginal society
In response to the fierce
Aboriginal resistance
as a result of poisoning
Due to ongoing injustices
for their land rights
• Focus on patterns that support deep content knowledge: provide focus questions such as:
> What are the main categories of circumstances used?
> What sub-categories are used?, eg time: point in time, duration. What is their function in the text?
> Are there any patterns in where categories of circumstances appear in the sentence? How do these
patterns connect with the genre/purpose? How do the patterns connect with the learning area?
• Students examine the categorisation table and share their observations.
• Facilitate a whole group sharing and add notes about connections to patterns such as those in the blue-
shaded row of the table above.
9. Role and angle to add perspective
17
Here, the focus is on circumstances of role and angle, which are also valuable when constructing analyses of
historical accounts, expositions, discussions and issues analyses across a range of learning areas. They answer
functional questions such as: In what role? According to whom? In whose view? Through the use of these
circumstances, students are able to show greater insights into the perspectives of various stakeholders.
18
Engage
• Use a model text that provides various perspectives using angle and role, eg Resource 4 an historical
recount, which is used as the context for this learning sequence.
• Using a learning area topic, where students have sucient field knowledge, generate a list of stakeholders,
eg mining or logging can be viewed from economic, social, environmental, Aboriginal perspectives. School
uniform policies include teachers, parents and students.
• Display and provide a copy of the model. Introduce the purpose of the text and read it together, discussing
any unfamiliar vocabulary.
• Ask, ‘Whose perspective and view of events are included in the text?’ – British and Aboriginal.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
17
See also Verbs and verb group 16 ‘Saying and mental processes to incorporate other viewpoints’.
18
See also Rossbridge & Rushton (2015) Model 3: Writing to recount historical perspectives, where year 5 and 6
students investigate perspective and interpretations as part of the history curriculum.
18 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Introduce/revise circumstances of angle and role,
making clear their function through their question
probes and examples (see Resource 1). Discuss
how circumstances of angle and role reveal the
perspectives of included beliefs and opinions
• Model/jointly identify circumstances of angle
(italicised) and role in paragraph 2 of Resource 4:
Para 2 However, from the British perspective,
there were no signs of what they saw
as agriculture or cultivation of the land.
According to English law, this meant ...
To the British, it was ‘terra nullius’ …
In their eyes, European culture was …
This act shows that, from the Aboriginal
perspective, the British …
Para 3 On January 26, 1788, the British claimed
the land as Crown land.
The English began to take over land,
which, to the Aboriginal population, …
Since, for the Aboriginal people, this
was an invasion of their territory …
Para 6 In their view, ‘they had been born to
live on, and protect, only the land of
their birth …’ Many worked as stockmen,
trackers or labourers for pastoralists.
As the traditional caretakers of the land,
they believed …
since, according to Aboriginal lore, land
was not owned by individuals.
• Students complete a close reading of the remaining
paragraphs to locate and highlight circumstances
of angle and role and share their analyses.
• Display a copy of paragraph 2, rewritten without
circumstances of angle and role:
However, there were no signs of what the British
saw as agriculture or cultivation of the land. This
meant that the Aboriginals did not have to be
acknowledged as having any claim to the land.
It was ‘terra nullius’ (land belonging to no-one),
meaning it could be claimed without the need
to pay or conquer anyone. European culture was
superior to all others, and the land was theirs
to claim, despite the First Fleet being met by
the Cadigal people running down to shake their
spears at them. This act shows that the British
were intruders. The impacts of this intrusion on
the Aboriginal people have been long-lasting
and devastating.
• Discuss:
> what dierence does it make to include these
circumstances of role and angle?
> if we remove them from the text, what is the
eect?
• Elicit points such as it sounds:
> as though this is what the writer thinks
> more factual and indisputable
> as though this is the only view.
• Use the identified examples to build an anchor
chart of ‘angle and role starters’, eg:
> role: as a (farmer), in her role of (governess)
> angle: according to …, from their perspective,
to the …
• Create a table in a shared document, with 2 columns:
British perspective; Aboriginal perspective and
model, noting the perspectives (beliefs/views). One
half of the class make notes on the British perspective
and the other on the Aboriginal perspective.
British perspective Aboriginal perspective
• no signs of agriculture
or cultivation of land
•
• •
• Students engage in accountable group talk, in
which they:
> use their notes and circumstances of angle
and role
> discuss how these diering perspectives help
to explain historical misunderstandings and/or
dierent current day views about celebrating
Australia Day on January 26.
Extend the learning
• Challenge and interrogate thinking when reading,
listening and writing texts by asking questions
such as ‘Whose view is this?’; ‘What role does this
person/group have in this issue?’
• Provide a range of statements expressing dierent
perspectives on an issue such as those in Verbs
and verb groups, Resource 8: Statements for and
against: logging.
• Students work in pairs to choose and rewrite 3 or 4
statements using a circumstance of angle or role, eg:
Original Rewritten
‘Australia’s forest
industry not only
employs thousands
of people, but it also
produces valuable
exports. It’s a very
important part of our
economy,’ stated Ms
Chip, local Member
of Parliament.
As local Member of
Parliament, Ms Chip sees
Australia’s forest industry
as a very important part
of our economy.
According to Ms Chip,
Australia’s forest industry
not only employs
thousands of people,
but it also produces
valuable exports.
• Alternatively, write each statement on a separate
page, with groups rotating through them to
generate multiple versions.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES | 19
10. Compacted details
of cause and eect
Circumstances of cause
At Levels 7–9, students begin to use circumstances
of cause, mainly the sub-category of ‘behalf’. In order
to both develop their language proficiency to Levels
10–12 and meet the increasing learning demands
of the curriculum, students need to expand their
resources to explore, understand and express cause
and eect relationships. This includes through verbs
(caused, resulted in); nouns (reason, eect) and using
circumstances of cause: reason (because of the rain,
due to the heat) and purpose (for peace, for an easier
life). Having a range of choices available in their
language toolkit, gives more options and flexibility as
they structure sentences and express what are ‘often
more subtle connections’
(Derewianka, 2020:99).
While grammatical resources can be focused on
and developed separately, given their increased
importance at Levels 10–12, so it is useful to focus on
the range of resources for expressing cause as a set.
Some of the following examples of cause and eect
are the same as those used in the Verbs and verb
groups and Nouns and noun groups sections.
19
Engage
• Select a topic where understanding cause and
eect relationships are key to developing deep
content knowledge and understandings (eg
historical account, exposition: argument or
discussion).
• Explain why cause and eect is important in this
topic, eg being able to recognise and express
relationships of cause and eect is important:
> when we are explaining and accounting for
how and why things happen/ed: factors and
consequences
> to help us logically develop and substantiate
our arguments: What has caused the issue?
What are the eects of the issue? How/why will
recommended solutions work/not work?
> to interpret and evaluate by linking an eect or
outcome to its cause: What is/was the eect of
an action, choice, feature?
• As you build student’s understandings of the field,
have students chart causes and eects. Chart
the causes chronologically and retrospectively
(looking back to see what caused an eect).
Charting chronological cause and eect
Cause
What happened?
Eect
What was the result?
Aboriginals began
guerrilla warfare
British shot and
poisoned many
Retrospectively to see what caused an eect
Eect
What happened?
Reason
What was the cause?
British claimed as
Crown Land
They believed it was
‘terra nullius’
• Model and demonstrate more complex chaining,
where eects can themselves become causes with
subsequent eects.
Cause and eect ‘chaining’
Cause Eect
Subsequent
eect
Trees for Life
Logging sets
up in the area
hundreds of
jobs for locals
who would
otherwise
struggle to find
work in the
area
• other local
businesses
and school
remain open
• families and
community
happier,
stronger and
more stable
the logging of
forests
cruel deaths
of many native
animals and
plants
extinction of up
to 50 species
of plants and
or animals
every day
removing tree
roots
problems of
erosion
land slides and
flooding
removing the
trees
trees no longer
removing
carbon dioxide
from air
• increased
pollution
• contributing
to climate
change
climate change more bushfires further
destruction
of natural
environments
stop logging
of rainforests
regeneration
of forests and
native flora
and fauna
a better future
for our planet
and for all
those living
on it
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
19
See Verbs and verb groups 17 ‘Causal relating processes for more precise relationships of cause-eect’ and Nouns and noun
groups 13 ‘Nominalised cause-eect’.
20 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES
• Using the cause and eect ‘chaining’ table, support students in creating a cause and eect flow chart related
to logging. The image below is provided as an example.
Cause and eect flow chart, showing factors leading to population movement
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Revisit the importance of understanding and constructing cause-eect relationships in your chosen context.
• Read a model text to demonstrate language of cause and eect, eg Resource 4.
• Discuss any unfamiliar vocabulary and concepts, checking for comprehension.
• Jointly highlight the language of cause and eect in the initial paragraph/s of Resource 4.
As there are many dierent resources available to express cause and eect, it is likely that, unless using a
carefully written and/or adapted text, cause and eect will be expressed through a range of resources other
than circumstance: conjunctions,
text connectives
, causal relating processes and nouns as coded in the
examples below. The historical recount in Resource 4 has been deliberately written to have many examples of
circumstances of cause (and of angle and role as seen in the previous learning sequence). Even so, it still uses
other resources to show cause and eect, as highlighted in the table below.
Highlighting language of cause and eect
Para 1 used fire to control the land and make hunting easier
Para 2 However, from the British perspective, there were no signs of what they saw as agriculture or
cultivation of the land. According to English law, this meant that the Aboriginals did not have to be
acknowledged as having any claim to the land. To the British, it was ‘terra nullius’ ...
Therefore
, they
believed it could be claimed without the need to pay or conquer anyone …
met by the Cadigal people running down to shake their spears at them. The Cadigal people reacted
in this way because, from their perspective, the British were intruders. The impacts of this ‘intrusion’
on the Aboriginal people have been devastating and long-lasting.
Para 3 On January 26, 1788, the British claimed the land … and, because of their belief in ‘terra nullius’,
they believed they could take and use anything … began to take over land, which, to the Aboriginal
population, was sacred or had been important grounds for hunting, fishing and crop cultivation
and harvesting.
Since
, for the Aboriginal people, this was an invasion of their territory, they quickly
became involved in a physical struggle.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
recession and
drought in rural
areas
many farmers
making losses
increase in
unemployment
population
movement
many people
move to cities to
search for work
people
on higher
incomes
renovating
inner city
houses
house
value
increases
property
values and
land rates in
area increase
low income
residents can
no longer
aord to live
there
low income
residents
forced to sell
and move
trend to live
on larger
blocks in
outer suburbs
urban
sprawl
problems
of access
to transport
and services
government
push for
medium
density
housing
close to city
increased
availability
of better
serviced
housing
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES | 21
• Jointly construct a table or flowchart to show the cause and eect relationships, such as the example below
showing 2 perspectives:
Cause and eect flow chart (drawing on Resource 4)
• In pairs, students select another paragraph from the model text to highlight the language of cause and eect
and to construct a table or flowchart to show relationships.
• Classify the language of cause and eect:
Classifying language of cause and eect in model text (Resource 4)
Conjunctions Circumstances: reason Verbs
because
Since
to (meaning ‘in order to’): to
control, to maintain control
because of their belief in ‘terra
nullius’
Due to the nature of Aboriginal
society,
In response to the fierce
Aboriginal resistance
as a result of poisoning
owing to their beliefs and
relationship with the land
Because of this belief
for their land
(following a ten year battle –
time and inferred reason)
make
resulted in
Text connectives Circumstances: purpose Nouns
Therefore
for hunting, fishing and crop
cultivation and harvesting.
impact
• Point out to students the variety of resources and the need for them to have a range in their language toolkit.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Aboriginal harmonious
connection to land
British belief in their own
superiority
built settlements,
controlled land with
fire, farmed, hunted
within their territory
saw no signs of what
they considered use/
ownership of land
English law said terra
nullius land could be
claimed without need
to pay or conquer
claimed land as
Crown land
some areas were
sacred or important
for farming and
hunting
Aboriginals resisted
and became involved
in warfare
began to take over
land important to
Aboriginal groups
believed land was
terra nullius
22 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
• Explain that you will focus on sharpening the
tool of circumstances of cause. Unpack the
sub-categories, related probe questions, and the
prepositions as stems/starters.
• Use the flow chart of causes and eects constructed
from Resource 4 to model and jointly construct
sentences, using circumstances of cause, eg:
1. Owing to the Aboriginal people’s connection
to the land, some areas were sacred to them.
2. Because of the British’s belief in their own
superiority, they did not acknowledge the
Aboriginals as inhabitants and so saw the land
was terra nullius.
• Revise that:
> these circumstances take the form of
prepositional phrases
> prepositional phrases comprise a preposition
(bolded in example sentences) followed by
a noun group.
• Make explicit that the noun groups here are all
built around a nominalisation (underlined above).
These nominalisations were already in the heading
boxes of the flow charts: Aboriginal harmonious
connection to the land, British belief in their own
superiority.
• Unpack the sentences you created into more
spoken-like versions and discuss grammatical
changes and their eects:
1. The Aboriginal people felt connected to the
land, so some areas were sacred to them.
– noun ‘connection’ becomes verb and
adjective
– additional clause
– preposition ‘owing to’ replaced by
conjunction so.
2. Because the British believed they were superior,
they did not acknowledge the Aboriginals as
inhabitants and saw the land as terra nullius.
– noun ‘belief’ becomes verb and noun
‘superiority’ becomes verb and adjective
– additional clauses
– preposition ‘because of’ replaced by
conjunction because.
• Explain that to join other events using a
circumstance of cause, they will often need
to form a nominalisation.
• Direct them to the events in the 2 boxes in the flow
chart where an arrow is used to demonstrate the
connection between the British takeover of land
and the Aboriginal resistance, leading to warfare.
• Provide the preposition: In response to. Reiterate
that:
> the preposition needs to be followed by a noun
group
> noun groups can begin with ‘the’ and are often
built around a nominalisation
> nominalisations are usually formed by changing
verbs and/or adjectives into nouns.
• Ask: ‘What was the Aboriginals’ action in response
to? How can we reword what’s in the box to be a
noun group?’
• Write ‘In response to the … the Aboriginals resisted
and became involved in warfare.’ Students turn and
talk to oer ways to complete the circumstance.
• Call for responses and discuss, eg:
> In response to the British taking possession of
their land,
> In response to the British occupation/invasion
of their land.
• Students create sentences using circumstances
of cause from their flow charts.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES | 23
LEVELS 1012 LEAPING TO LEVELS 1314
LEVELS 10–12 LEAPING TO LEVELS 13–14
Learning sequence Language in focus Genres
11. Compacted details of
cause and contingency
• circumstances of:
> cause
> reason: for what reason?
> purpose: for what purpose?
> contingency
> condition: in what situation?
under what conditions?
> concession: despite what?
although what?
• investigations, issue analyses
• explanations: causal, factorial,
consequential and historical
accounts
• expositions: discussions, debates
11. Compacted details of cause and contingency
At Levels 13–14, students develop their use of circumstances in 2 key ways:
• greater use of contingency
• forming longer, more complex prepositional phrases that convey technical and abstract meanings.
This increased technicality and abstraction is largely achieved through the noun group, typically built around
a nominalisation. (Prepositional phrases consist of a preposition followed by a noun group.
20
)
In spoken language, contingency is expressed through conjunctions connecting clauses.
Later, students add text connectives as resources to make logical connections of contingency between
adjacent sentences or paragraphs. As students move to the more written-like language of Levels 13–14, they
learn to use circumstances to make these meanings:
• condition: in case of structural damage, in the event of an earthquake, with/without increased funding
• concession: despite a previous failed attempt, in spite of the risks they faced.
With these circumstances added to their language toolkit, students have more options as they structure their
ideas and texts. Using circumstances they can pack meanings into one, denser clause.
Meaning
Subordinating
conjunction
Text connective Preposition
cause-eect because
therefore
,
as a result
,
consequently
due to, because of
since as a result of
contingency: condition if
otherwise
,
in that case
in the case of, with
unless
if not
without
contingency: concession even though, although
even so
,
nevertheless
despite, in spite of
This learning sequence focuses on using circumstances of cause and contingency. Contingency enables
students to present views and arguments that explore cause and eect at a deeper level. This includes
accounting for:
• circumstances that create an eect (condition)
• outcomes and evidence that go against expectations or a personal viewpoint (concession).
Approach the following learning sequence in 1 of 2 ways:
1. Explore all 3 aspects and record responses in note/spoken-like forms first. Then work on sentence construction,
beginning with conjunctions before shifting to more written-like compact sentences using circumstances.
2. Explore cause and eect, record responses and construct sentences with conjunctions and then circumstances.
Repeat these steps for condition and then for concession.
20
See also Noun and noun groups 15 ‘Nominalisation: encapsulating speech, thought and key threads’,
which provides activities to develop control over the noun group and nominalisation.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
24 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES
Engage
• Select a topic where relationships of cause and
contingency are key to developing deep content
knowledge and understandings, eg the discussion
of the exploitation of garment workers in Resource
5: Women garment workers – exploitation or
empowerment?
• Students share what they know about the topic
prior to a first shared reading of the text.
• Explain that to fully understand an issue and
to make balanced arguments and eective
recommendations, we need to understand
relationships of:
1. Cause-eect: Why did things happen? What
are/were the factors and consequences? What
were the reasons for or intentions behind events?
2. Condition: What elements, events or conditions
were the events/outcomes dependent on?
3. Concession: What unexpected things happened?
What happened despite the conditions? Which
aspects/outcomes are counter to expectations?
• As a class develop topic specific prompt questions:
1. Prompt questions for inquiring into cause-eect
– Why?
reason – because; purpose – in order to and
consequence – so, and therefore
> How/why are the workers being exploited?
> Why are working conditions bad? What are the
reasons and results?
> What is the intention of the employers?
> Why do people take up this work and keep
working in these conditions?
2. Prompt questions for inquiring into condition
– What if?
> What needs to change for things to be better?
> What would happen if …?
> What wouldn’t happen if …?
> What would change with or without …?
> What conditions will need to be in place for this
to happen?
> What conditions will need to be absent for this
to happen?
3. Prompt questions for inquiring into concession
– Although what?
> What do the workers do even though the
conditions are as they are?
> What are the unexpected outcomes?
> What has been tried but failed?
> Although the situation is overall negative/
positive, what contradicts this?
• Use Resource 5 and this set of prompt questions
to do a close reading with students and record
notes in response.
• Groups read/view and use prompt questions to
note-take another text before then repeating the
process individually with a third text.
Revision of cause-eect
See also 10 ‘Compacted details of cause and eect’.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Focus students’ attention on the notes taken under
the cause-eect questions.
• Call on students to respond to questions, using
their notes, eg ‘Why do young women get trapped
in this industry?’: Because they are poor and
desperate for an income for their families; because
they are unskilled and can’t find other jobs.
• Co-construct one or more examples of full
sentences, recording them for all to see, eg
‘Because they are poor and desperate for an
income for their families, young women can
become trapped in this industry.’
• Elicit that this was an appropriate informal, spoken
response but not appropriate for formal academic
contexts. Point out the use of conjunctions because
and so.
• Explain that you will take them through some steps
they can use to shift to formal, academic language.
This will involve using circumstances rather than
new clauses joined with conjunctions.
• Display/provide a copy of a circumstances chart
such as Resource 1.
• Model the steps with one of the examples, thinking
aloud, eg ‘because they are unskilled and can’t find
other jobs’.
> Replace conjunction with a preposition (use
Resource 1 to find prepositions for cause).
> Reduce the clause that follows the conjunction to
a noun group, which can follow the preposition.
> Nominalise verbs – or adjectives used with
relating processes.
> Repack information around it.
When talking about what someone doesn’t have,
we could say they ‘lack’ this thing. Then we can talk
about ‘a lack of skills or training’ and ‘a lack of job
opportunities or employment options.’
• Put the parts together to form a sentence and check:
‘Due to a lack of training and job opportunities,
young women can get trapped in this industry’.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES | 25
• Use the steps to guide a joint construction of
another example: ‘because they are poor and so
they are desperate for an income for their families’.
> Choose a preposition.
> What noun/s can you make from the adjectives
‘poor’ and ‘desperate’? and record: poverty,
desperation. (If needed, revise that a noun can
be preceded by ‘the’ or a possessive. Provide
prompts such as, ‘so if the women are poor
and desperate, we can talk about their …; the
women’s …’)
> Repackage: Due to poverty and desperation,
Because of their poverty and desperation.
• In pairs, students use the notes and construct
sentences using circumstances of cause to answer
other questions, eg Why are the conditions bad?
Why/how are they being exploited?
Focus on contingency: condition
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Focus students’ attention on notes taken on
questions for contingency: condition.
• Ask questions and call on students to respond,
using the notes, eg ‘What would make this
situation better for workers?’: shorter working
hours, better pay, better light, better equipment,
comfortable chairs, regular breaks, fair bosses.
• Have students use ideas to write sentences using
‘if’ or ‘unless’, eg:
> If they had shorter working hours, workers
would be healthier and have more time for
their families.
> If their working hours were shortened, workers
would be healthier and have more time for
their families.
> Workers will keep having problems with their
eyesight, unless the lighting is improved.
> Unless they get better lighting, workers will keep
having problems with their eyesight.
• Model sentences with circumstance of contingency:
condition.
1. Replace conjunction with a preposition.
> Use Resource 1 to find prepositions for
condition.
2. Reduce the clause that followed the conjunction
to a noun group, which can follow the preposition.
> Use or improve the noun group that follows
a ‘having’ verb, or
> change verb into a ‘describer’: change improve
to improved; change shorten to shorter.
3. Repackage, eg:
> With shorter working hours, the workers
would be healthier.
> Without improved lighting, the worker’s
eyesight will continue to suer.
Focus on contingency: concession
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Focus students’ attention on notes for questions
for contingency: concession.
• Students respond to questions about notes,
eg ‘When you consider the conditions, what
is surprising?’:
> Conditions are bad and dangerous for their
health but they still keep working there.
> They don’t get paid much.
> The women work really long hours and then
they still have to shop cook and clean for
their family.
• Point out the use of ‘but’ and ‘still’ in spoken
responses.
• Revise/explain that these meanings can also be
made with subordinating conjunctions: although
and even though or with text connectives:
even so
,
nevertheless
.
• Students use the ideas in the notes to write sentences,
practising formal academic language, eg:
> Although they work in dicult conditions, they
are poorly paid.
> Even though the conditions put their health at
risk, they are given no sick leave.
> These women work very long hours in dicult
conditions.
Even so
, they manage to cook and
clean for their families.
> Unions and non-government agencies have
been trying to achieve better conditions
since 1984.
Nevertheless
, they continue to
be exploited.
• Focus on 2 other resources for concession.
• Model reworking a sentence using despite as a
conjunction making explicit that the subordinate
clause will always use the ‘ing’ non-finite form
of the verb:
Original Reworked
Although they work
in difficult conditions,
they are poorly paid.
Despite working in
difficult conditions,
they are poorly paid.
Change conjunction.
Remove subject (they) and change verb to -ing
form
non-finite clause.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
26 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES
• Model reworking a sentence using despite as a
preposition followed by a noun group:
Original Reworked
Although they work
in difficult conditions,
they are poorly paid.
Despite their difficult
working conditions,
they are poorly paid.
Change conjunction (Although) to preposition
(Despite).
Change clause (they work in difficult conditions)
a noun group their difficult working
conditions by:
• changing pronoun (they) to possessive (their)
and use as a pointer
• changing verb to -ing form and use as a
classifier (working).
• Jointly rework another sentence using despite as
subordinating conjunction:
Original Reworked
Unions have been
fighting for the rights of
garment workers since
1984.
Nevertheless
,
they continue to be
exploited.
Despite unions fighting
for their rights since
1984, garment workers
continue to be
exploited.
Remove auxiliaries (have been) from verb to
create a subordinate non-finite clause.
Replace text connective (
Nevertheless
) by
beginning with a conjunction (Despite).
Delete ‘garment workers’ and repackage as
pointer ‘their’. Use ‘garment workers’ instead
of ‘they’ in main clause to make clear who is
being exploited.
When using ‘despite’ as a conjunction, the non-finite
clause will keep its subject if it is dierent to the subject
of the main clause, as in this case (unions and garment
workers). If it were the same subject, it would be
omitted, eg Garment workers have been fighting for
their rights since 1984. Despite fighting for their rights
for over 20 years, they continue to be exploited.
• Jointly rework sentence using despite as a
preposition followed by a noun group:
Original Reworked
Unions have been
fighting for the rights of
garment workers since
1984.
Nevertheless
,
there has been little
change in conditions
and workers continue
to be exploited.
Despite the union’s
on-going battle for
the rights of garment
workers, there has
been little change in
conditions and workers
continue to be exploited.
Begin with preposition, Despite.
Change clause (Unions have been fighting for
the rights of garment workers)
a noun group
(the union’s on-going battle for the rights of
garment workers).
21
Here that involved:
• changing verb to noun (battle)
• repacking around the noun:
> changing subject noun (Unions) to
possessive (the union’s) as pointer
> instead of circumstance of time (since
1984), use describer (on-going)
• delete text connective (
Nevertheless
).
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
21
See also Cohesive devices 12 ‘Strategic orientations and text organisation’. Within this, the learning sequence ‘Orienting to abstraction
through passive voice and nominalisation’ provides more examples of shifting from subordinate clauses to circumstances.
The model text provided in Cohesive devices Resource 8: Discussion/argument: Should children play computer games? has
several examples of circumstances of cause and contingency and the associated activities.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES | 27
Resource 1: Circumstances chart
22
(more common—more spoken-like)
MEANING
Category probe questions
FORM
Adverbs Prepositional phrases
PLACE
Where? (Specific place)
Where to/from? (Direction)
indoors, here, there, upstairs,
backwards, forwards, inside
out, nearby, inside, away
over the moon, at home, into the garden, out the
window, under the chair, towards the city, from
the beach, to the outskirts of town, out of the box
How far? (Distance) for 10 metres, across the paddock, to the ends
of the earth, to the moon and back
ACCOMPANIMENT
With whom/what?
And who/what?
alone, together by himself, with her, without her, with rice, along
with jelly
TIME
When? (Specific point
in time)
yesterday, tomorrow,
today, soon, later, now,
then, afterwards, already,
suddenly, early, beforehand
in the evening, at 10 o’clock, by midnight on
Tuesday, about midday, before dinner
How long? (Duration) forever, no longer, still,
any longer, yet, anymore,
already, so far, briefly,
overnight
for a week, since last Friday, for the whole day,
until yesterday, during the war, throughout the
winter months
How often? (Frequency) frequently, a lot, twice, hardly
ever, daily, occasionally,
never, always, sometimes,
rarely
every Sunday, once a month, most weekends
MATTER – TOPIC
What about? about a Vietnamese girl, regarding this matter,
on the topic of frogs
MANNER – HOW?
In what way/in what
manner? (Quality)
sadly, swiftly, quietly,
violently, fast, politely, hard,
gently, angrily, reluctantly
with a sigh, in a strange way, without trying
With what/by what means?
(Means)
manually, electronically with a broom, without your notes, by car, through
persistence
Like what/compared to
what? (Comparison)
dierently by way of contrast, in comparison, like a dream,
as cunningly as a fox
(less common – more written-like)
MEANING
Category probe questions
FORM – prepositional phrases only (more complex)
Typical prepositions used Prepositional phrases
CAUSE – WHY?
For whom/on whose
behalf? (Behalf)
for, on behalf of, for the
sake of, in favour of
for my mother, on behalf of everyone, for Mary’s
sake
For what reason/from
what cause? (Reason)
for, because of, as a result
of, due to, out of, from,
thanks to, owing to, for
want of
because of the pollution, due to the fox’s ability to
adapt, as a result of the revolution, for his eorts,
from old age, out of frustration
22
Adapted from Derewianka (2011:67–68, 72–73) and Halliday & Matthiessen (2004:262–263).
28 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES
(less common – more written-like)
MEANING
Category probe questions
FORM – prepositional phrases only (more complex)
Typical prepositions used Prepositional phrases
CAUSE – WHY?
[continued]
For what purpose/what
for? (Purpose)
for, for the purpose of, for
the sake of, in the hope of,
with the intention of
for an easier life, in the hope of rain, with the aim
of reconciliation, for the sake of revenge
ROLE – GUISE
What as? as, by way of, in the role/
shape/guise/form of
as an early explorer, in her role as a scientist, in
the guise of an ally
ANGLE – SOURCE
According to whom?
In whose view?
according to, in the words
of, to, in the view/opinion
of, from the standpoint of
according to local authorities, in the words of Rudd,
in my opinion, from an Aboriginal perspective
CONTINGENCY
If what/in what situation/
in case of what? With/
without what? (Condition)
in case of, in the event of,
on condition of, with,
without, in the absence of
in the event of fire, in case of an emergency,
under normal conditions, without an agreed
approach, with increased funding
Although what/despite
what? (Concession)
despite, in spite of, regardless
of, notwithstanding
despite repeated attempts, in spite of the rain,
regardless of the loss
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES | 29
Resource 2: The life cycle of an emperor penguin
In winter, the adult female emperor penguin lays a single egg and gives it
to her mate. He rolls it onto his feet and covers it with his stomach to keep
it warm or to incubate the egg.
About two months later, in July, the egg begins to hatch. The new chick pecks
repeatedly at the egg-shell with its beak so it can crack open and hatch.
When it hatches, the chick is very small. It must stay on the male penguin’s feet
to keep warm or it could die. The male emperor penguin feeds the hungry chick
a special milky liquid.
After about 50 days, the chick starts to go out onto the ice on its own.
By the end of the year, the growing chick is nearly as big as its parents. It learns
how to feed itself and begins to waddle o exploring with other chicks.
In January, the large chick leaves its parents completely.
30 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES
Resource 3: Plastic straws must be banned!
People all over the world use plastic drinking straws for convenience. Millions
are given out in hotels, cafés and with multi-pack juices and milk drinks from
supermarkets. I strongly believe that plastic straws need to be banned completely.
So many are thrown away and left as rubbish on the ground or they end up in
our waterways like creeks and oceans. Some do go to rubbish dumps, but they
take a very long time to break down.
Firstly, fruit and milk juice boxes with plastic straws attached are popular with
children as quick and easy snacks. The plastic straws then get thrown away in
school yards and streets all the time. Since they are light, they blow around in
our streets and parks too. Because of this, our schools and our community look
messy and horrible.
Also, plastic straws can travel into the ocean. In the ocean, they look like food so
creatures like turtles and sea birds may eat them and choke. Plastic straws slowly
break down in the sea too. When they turn into smaller bits of plastic (micro
plastics), lots of smaller sea creatures like fish swallow them as well. Plastic straws
hurt so many animals in our beautiful oceans.
Finally, plastic straws take thousands of years to break down. When people try
to do the right thing and throw them in the bin, they still go to the dump. After a
long time in landfill they do slowly breakdown, but then they release poisonous
gas into the air. They are just so harmful to our world.
Because of plastic straws, our environment is in danger. Don’t you want to help?
Today, there are other types of straws that we can use. Straws made of paper or
card break down so they do not cause any harm. Reusable straws like bamboo
and metal straws are great choices too. We must all act now for our planet.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES | 31
Resource 4: An historical account: Australia –
whose land?
23
At the time of their arrival, Australia was inhabited by hundreds of groups of Aboriginal peoples living in
harmonious connection with the land. For thousands of years they had built settlements with dwellings and
communal buildings; tended, harvested and stored crops; engineered elaborate fishing traps; and used fire
to control the land and make hunting easier.
However, from the British perspective, there were no signs of what they saw as agriculture or cultivation of
the land. According to English law, this meant that the Aboriginals did not have to be acknowledged as having
any claim to the land. To the British, it was ‘terra nullius’ (land belonging to no-one).
Therefore
, they believed
it could be claimed without the need to pay or conquer anyone. In their eyes, European culture was superior
to all others and the land was theirs to claim, despite being met by the Cadigal people running down to shake
their spears at them. The Cadigal people reacted in this way because, from their perspective, the British were
intruders. The impacts of this ‘intrusion’ on the Aboriginal people have been devastating and long-lasting.
On January 26 1788, the British claimed the land as Crown land and, because of their belief in ‘terra nullius’,
they believed they could take and use anything on the land. The English began to take over land, which, to
the Aboriginal population, was sacred or had been important grounds for hunting, fishing, crop cultivation
and harvesting. Since, for the Aboriginal people, this was an invasion of their territory, they quickly became
involved in a physical struggle.
This first main period of Aboriginal resistance in the area now called Sydney was from 1794 to 1816. Due to
the nature of Aboriginal society, their resistance took its own distinctive form of warfare. Through intertribal
gatherings, they planned and carried out attacks on isolated settlements, ambushed small groups of settlers,
and burnt crops, buildings and countryside. As the whites settled across the country, there is evidence of wide-
spread resistance from local Aboriginal populations.
In response to the fierce Aboriginal resistance, the British employed a variety of strategies to maintain control.
These included mass shootings or massacres of men, women and children in cold blood. Many Aboriginals
also died as a result of poisoning when their watering holes were poisoned, or they were given flour, sugar or
damper mixed with arsenic. These were common events in the 19th century and continued into the first half of
the 20th century in some parts of Australia.
As the Aboriginal peoples were forcibly driven from their lands, they could not simply move into neighbouring
clan lands owing to their beliefs and relationship with the land. In their view, ‘they had been born to live
on, and protect, only the land of their birth – their Country’ (Pascoe 2019). Because of this belief, Aboriginal
people generally remained in their territory, in spite of losing their battle. Many worked as stockmen, trackers
or labourers for pastoralists. As the traditional caretakers of the land, they believed they were still caring
for and controlling the land in new partnerships, since, according to Aboriginal lore, land is not owned by
individuals. Many were later surprised to learn that the land now belonged to the government or the settlers.
Due to ongoing injustices, the Aboriginal community began to come together to fight for their land rights
again. In 1983, their struggle resulted in the creation of the NSW Aboriginal Land Rights Act. Eventually,
following a ten year battle, the High Courts overturned ‘terra nullius’ in June 1992. However, the fight for land
rights still continues today.
Source material
Australian Government (2010) Impacts of settlement on Aboriginal people, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/ImpactSettlement
(accessed December 2020)
Pascoe B (2019) Young Dark Emu: A Truer History, Broome, Western Australia: Magabala Books
23
Circumstances of angle and role in blue italic. All other highlighted language are cause-eect resources: conjunctions,
text connectives
, processes, nominalisations and circumstances.
32 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES CIRCUMSTANCES
Resource 5: Women garment workers – exploitation
or empowerment?
24
The garment industry is and has historically been one of the most female-dominated industries in the world.
More than 70% of garment workers in China are women; in Bangladesh the share is 85%, and in Cambodia
it is as high as 90%. For these women, it is about moving out of poverty, being able to provide children with
education, and to become more independent and grow as an individual.
However, the reality for most garment workers across Asia is a far cry from these aspirations. Despite their vital
contribution to the large profits of clothing companies, garment workers are working for poverty wages, under
dreadful conditions, and are required to undertake an excessive amount of overtime. Many work more than
60 hours of overtime per week and it is common to be cheated of the overtime pay. Health and safety are often
neglected, workers are denied breaks, and abuses are common – to mention a few of the problems in the industry.
Yet, there are some who argue that this exploitation is the road to female empowerment. Women’s participation
in work has significantly contributed to reducing poverty and addressing the issue of gender equity in developing
countries. For their families, the income of the female garment workers increases the family’s economic position,
household consumption of food, and helps them invest more in the education of their children.
Poverty is the main driving force for women to participate in paid factory work. Female workers typically
migrate from rural areas to meet their financial needs. With little education, few options are available to them.
Unskilled women state that they have no choice except to work as a domestic servant or as a factory worker.
Factory work is like a profession, it gives them social identity. They can do extra work to earn extra money,
which they cannot do in domestic work. However, the women express concerns that work at the garment
factory is hard and exploitative. In spite of these concerns, thousands of women work in this industry because
it has more social status and they can earn extra money by doing overtime.
Nevertheless, the women who participate in unskilled garment work are at risk of adverse eects on their
health and wellbeing due to the work environment and demands associated with this changing gender role.
With inadequate lighting, continuous noise and the constant inhalation of dust fabric, along with the repetitive
nature of the work, workers report that the work has led to back and joint pain, continuous headaches, eye
pain and diculty in breathing, making them feel permanently tired. Without air conditioning and only a few
electric fans on the production floor, the workers suer heat exhaustion during summer. Despite the provision
of doctors, the workers do not have opportunity for regular medical examinations to check their health status.
Taking time o for health conditions, even with a medical certificate, can lead to being fired.
Furthermore, female workers report that working in the factory and meeting the expectations of the families
at home has doubled their workload. This is supported by studies which found that participation in paid work
increases women’s workload, family conflicts, and their vulnerability to domestic violence. All of the women
interviewed stated that meeting the demands of their job and taking care of their family members is a constant
battle. Despite working long hours at a factory, the women are expected to take care of children and other
family members, especially husbands, preparing and serving food, washing and cleaning.
Regardless of these negative impacts on their health and wellbeing, most female workers say they plan to
work in the garment industry for ten years. After this time they will return to their own village. They are trying
to save some money to buy some land in their village and to build a house. Some women report that they
have established a tailoring business in their own village after they leave the job.
Employment in the garment industry has brought economic changes in the lives of women despite the
physically demanding nature of the work. However, according to the narratives of the female workers,
it is clear that the economic benefits come at the cost of the health of the female workers.
Source material
Fashion Revolution (2015) Exploitation or emancipation? Women workers in the garment industry, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/FashionRev
Akhter S, Rutherford S & Chu C (2019) Sewing shirts with injured fingers and tears: exploring the experience of female garment
workers health problems in Bangladesh, BMC International Health and Human Rights, 19(2), doi: 10.1186/s12914-019-0188-4,
available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/SewingShirts
24
Circumstances of contingency: condition and concession are coded in bold blue. Other less-common, more written-like
circumstances of cause, role and angle are coded blue (unbolded).
The Department for Education requests attribution as:
South Australian Department for Education | APRIL 2021
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP)
TARGETED STRATEGIES TO ACCELERATE SAE PROFICIENCY
NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS
NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS: INTRODUCTION 2
Nouns 2
Singular and plural – countable and uncountable nouns 2
Noun groups 3
Parts of a noun group and their functions 3
How do noun groups function in a clause? 3
Adjectives and adjectival groups 3
Adjectives 3
Adjectival groups 3
Functions of adjectives and adjectival groups 3
Nominalisation 4
Embedded phrases and clauses 4
Prepositional phrases as qualifiers 4
Distinguishing qualifiers from circumstances: tips 5
LEVELS 1–4 AND LEAPING TO LEVELS 5–6 6
1. Vocabulary to name people, places, animals and things 7
Articles and other pointers 7
2. Details of number, size, shape and colour 7
Plural forms 8
3. Imaginative description beyond size, shape and colour 9
4. Factual description beyond size, shape and colour 9
5. Descriptions including classification 10
LEVELS 5–6 LEAPING TO LEVELS 7–9 12
6. More detailed and precise description 13
7. Qualifying phrases: which one/s are we talking about? 14
8. Qualifying clauses: which one/s are we talking about? 16
9. Packing factual information into noun groups 17
10. Nominalisations to build technicality 19
LEVELS 7–9 LEAPING TO LEVELS 10–12 21
11. Embedded relative clauses to specify which people, places or things 21
12. Imagery in noun groups with multiple qualifiers 23
13. Nominalised cause-eect 26
14. Compacted details to carry ideas forward 27
Focus on the noun group 27
Focus on nominalisation 27
Focus on repackaging notes into text 28
LEVELS 10–12 LEAPING TO LEVELS 13–14 29
15. Nominalisation: encapsulating speech, thought and key threads 29
Nominalising to express thinking and saying 29
Resource 1: Elements of a noun group 31
Resource 2: Early noun group chart 32
Resource 3: Noun group chart 33
Resource 4: Abstract nouns to encapsulate processes, relationships and concepts 34
2 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS
NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS: INTRODUCTION
The noun group is a valuable language resource as it can be extended in many ways to provide rich and
detailed information about the person or thing …
(Derewianka, 2011:42)
As students develop their language proficiency, they learn to use learning area-specific nouns and to add details
about them in expanded noun groups. This enables them to show deep content learning as they express ideas
with greater precision and in more compact ways.
Nouns
Nouns are used to name or represent people, places, things and concepts. See the LEAP glossary for further
information about nouns and noun groups, including common and proper nouns.
Singular and plural – countable and uncountable nouns
A key feature of common nouns is that they can be counted or measured in some way.
Countable nouns name ‘things’ that can be individually counted out, eg days, children, cups, bowls, spoons,
apples. With countable nouns:
• use the question: ‘How many?’
• a numeral can precede the noun, eg 6 hours, 3 children, 1/2 cup, 2 spoons
• use an indefinite article to mean a single ‘thing’, eg an hour, a child, a cup, a spoon, an apple
• demonstratives can be used to point out a particular one or ones, eg this hour, that child, these cups,
those apples
• singular and plural forms are used, which can either be:
> regular, adding a sux: ‘s’ (hour–hours), ‘es’ (watch–watches) or ‘ies’ (century–centuries)
> irregular: child–children, person–people, foot–feet.
Uncountable nouns name things that are seen as a mass or a notion, rather than individual entities, eg sand,
water, sugar, medicine, information, skin, cutlery, anxiety. With uncountable nouns:
• use the question: ‘How much?’
• instead of numerals, a measure can precede the noun, eg a grain of sand, a cup of water, three spoonfuls
of sugar, ten pages of information, a piece of skin
• instead of indefinite articles, use any or some, eg some sand, any water, some anxiety, any cutlery
• can be used without a pointer
• typically have no plural form, eg it is non-standard to say, ‘I read a lot of informations about it.’
• only singular demonstratives can be used, eg this sand, that sugar.
A note about fewer or less: In formal Standard Australian English, fewer is used for countable nouns (fewer fish)
and less is used for non-countable nouns (less pollution).
Proper nouns name a particular:
• person (Mary)
• place (Thebarton) or
• thing (the Australian Government).
As such, they are neither countable nor non-countable and rarely take a plural form. If a plural form is used,
it is usually a shortened form of a larger noun group, eg ‘I know three Marys’ means, ‘I know three people
called Mary’.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS | 3
Noun groups
A noun group consists of a noun as its core and any other words that describe or modify the noun. Since there
can be more than one noun in a noun group, the core noun is referred to as the key noun. It names or denotes
the central or key person, place or thing.
Parts of a noun group and their functions
As shown in Resource 1: Elements of a noun group, a noun group can be made up of many parts, each with
their own function and functional question. Resource 1 provides an overview of the parts, their functions (and
functional question) along with the various grammatical forms they can take, with examples.
How do noun groups function in a clause?
When we consider the 3 functional parts of the clause—participants, processes and circumstances—we see
that noun groups are important in 2 functions:
• participants are typically expressed in the form of nouns and noun groups, and sometimes as adjectives
or adjectival groups
• circumstances are often expressed in the form of:
> prepositional phrases, which consist of a preposition followed by a noun group. This is very common,
eg between the towering pine trees (preposition between + noun group the towering pine trees)
> a noun group on its own. This is particularly for time, eg One sunny day, Three weeks later.
When we begin focusing on nouns and noun groups with students, we typically focus on them acting as
participants. However, it is very important that we make clear that participants and noun/noun groups are not
the same thing. Participant refers to the function in the clause and noun/noun group to the grammatical form.
Therefore, while we may begin with a focus on nouns and noun groups as participants, we need to make clear
that they can also perform other functions in the clause.
Adjectives and adjectival groups
Adjectives
Adjectives are words that express some feature or quality of a noun. This definition stands in contrast to
the more common definition that an adjective is a describing word. Pointing out the relationship between
the adjective and the noun is key, because lots of words can be descriptive, including adverbs … or indeed
a well-chosen noun or verb.
(Myhill, Jones, Watson & Lines, 2016:22)
Adjectival groups
An adjective can have words added before or after it, which add to or modify the meaning of the adjective.
These work together as an adjectival group. For example, hungry; a little hungry; as hungry as a lion.
Functions of adjectives and adjectival groups
Adjectives or adjectival groups can be used in 2 main ways:
• part of a noun group: adjectives and adjectival groups are often included within a noun group to add detail
to the noun. Typically, they will be in front of the noun. However, for literary or rhetorical eect they can
be placed after the noun. There sat a young child, tired, hungry and abandoned. As shown in Resource 1,
they can function as describers or classifiers. Resource 1 also shows how intensifiers can be used to modify
describers, creating an adjectival group within a noun group.
4 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS
• description as a participant: adjectives and adjectival groups can also be used in conjunction with a relating
process to relate a quality or feature to a person or thing, eg Tuesday was hot; I am very tired; She is quieter
than a mouse. In these instances, the adjectives or adjectival groups act as participants answering the
question, ‘what?’, eg ‘What was Tuesday?’, ‘hot‘.
Thing being described Relating verb Description
Tuesday was hot
I am very tired
She is quieter than a mouse
It can be helpful to see this as a shortened noun group. It was a hot day. I am a very tired person. She is a girl
who is quieter than a mouse.
Nominalisation
Nominalisation is the process of changing other word forms into nouns, eg:
Other word forms Nominalisation
Verb explain
invent
choose
explanation
invention
choice
Adjective brave
high
ecient
bravery
height
eciency
Conjunction because
so
if
cause, result
consequence
contingency
Modality likely
perhaps
must
likelihood
possibility
requirement
Nominalisation is a valuable resource that allows us to encapsulate ideas, condense texts and build technicality
and precision. Across the curriculum, this allows us to precisely and concisely label complex processes (condensation,
desertification) and events (Civil Rights Movement, The Great Depression). This feature of ‘summarising’
complex ideas means they can also be used to compact previously mentioned ideas and carry them forward.
Nominalisations can also easily be used as sentence openers.
Embedded phrases and clauses
Prepositional phrases as qualifiers
We can specify which noun or ‘thing’ is being referred to by using a prepositional phrase. For example:
• She wore a coat with a fur collar.
• The boy under the tree is my son.
As qualifiers, prepositional phrases provide information about the noun in answer to questions like:
Where? the boy under the tree
Where from? the woman from number 22
With what? a coat with a fur collar
What like? lights like a jewelled necklace
Whose? the reign of Emperor Qin
About what? debate about mobile phones
What kind? fields of billowing grasslands
What for? a motive for murder
(Adapted from Derewianka, 2011:56)
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS | 5
Distinguishing qualifiers from circumstances: tips
There are 3 main questions to ask:
1. Is it providing extra detail about a noun?
2. If it is moved elsewhere in the clause, does it change the meaning?
3. If it is removed, do we lose detail about the noun rather than the process?
If it is a qualifier, the answer will be ‘yes’ for all these questions, eg:
The woman from number 22 wore a coat with a fur collar.
‘from number 22’ specifies which woman; ‘with a fur collar’ add details about the coat (1).
a) From number 22, the woman wore a coat with a fur collar.
b) With a fur collar, the woman from number 22 wore a coat.
Neither can be moved without changing the meaning. In the first rearrangement, it sounds as though the woman
wore the coat from number 22 to some unknown destination. The second loses meaning, or perhaps tells us
how she wore the coat (2).
c) The woman wore a coat.
If they are removed we have lost detail about the woman (which one?) and the coat (what type?) (3).
Qualifiers can be in noun groups within circumstances too, eg sat in a field of billowing grass.
Embedded clauses as qualifiers
Embedded clauses also add information after the noun to specify or restrict the ‘thing/s’ we are talking about.
They are typically either relative clauses or non-finite clauses. Like prepositional phrases as qualifiers, they
cannot be moved and if they are removed, we lose the detail that helps us know precisely which one/s are
being referred to, eg:
• Aboriginal children who were taken from their families could no longer learn their language and cultural
ways and beliefs.
• The reader’s eyes follow the line created by the torch light.
Embedded clauses can be in noun groups within circumstances too, eg sucked into an area where the air
pressure is low.
6 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS
LEVELS 14 AND LEAPING TO LEVELS 56
LEVELS 1–4
Learning sequence Language in focus Genres
1. Vocabulary to name
people, places, animals
and things
• key nouns: everyday nouns related to
home, local community and school
• grammatical accuracy: articles and
other pointers
• narratives
• recounts
2. Details of number, size,
shape and colour
• adding detail about the noun:
numerals and adjectives to describe
and to create short noun groups
• grammatical accuracy: articles and
other pointers
• plurals
• narratives
• descriptions
LEAPING TO LEVELS 5–6
3. Imaginative description
beyond size, shape and
colour
• adding detail in front of the noun:
> describers – what’s it like?
• narratives
• descriptions
• poetry
4. Factual description beyond
size, shape and colour
• descriptions
• descriptive reports
5. Description including
classification
> classifiers – what kind or what
type is it?
• narratives
• descriptive reports
Suggested mentor texts
Books (bolding indicates that the sequence is based around this text) Learning sequence
Allen P (1982) Who Sank the Boat? Penguin 2
Bland N (2015) The Very Noisy Bear, Scholastic Press 2
Carle E (1969) The Very Hungry Caterpillar, Hamish Hamilton (Number) 2, 3
Carle E (1990) The Very Quiet Cricket, Penguin (Size) 2
Dodd E (2009) I don’t want a posh dog!, Little, Brown Books for Young Readers 2
Dubosarsky U & Joyner A (2009) The Terrible Plop, Penguin 2
Gravett E (2010) Blue Chameleon, Pan McMillan AU 2
Hawthorn-Jackson D (2018) The Little Aussie Bush Babies, Emu Consulting 2
Morgan S & Erzinger T (2014) A Feast for Wombat, Omnibus Books 2
Martin B & Carle E (1967) Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See?, Doubleday (Colour) 2, 5
Berenstain S & J (1970) Old Hat New Hat, Random House Children's Books 2, 5
Clement R (1995) Just Another Ordinary Day, Harper Collins 5
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS | 7
1. Vocabulary to name people, places, animals and things
Engage
• Read a variety of big books, picture books and online narratives.
• Build awareness of nouns by asking:
> ‘Who is this?’ for characters/people
> ‘What is this?’ for objects, such as animals and things like trees
> ‘What is this place/setting?’ for places like the beach.
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Build lists of nouns from shared narratives.
• Have 4 areas labelled People, Places, Animals and Things. Each student is given a picture of a familiar noun,
orally names it and places it in the correct area.
• Create posters of nouns for the dierent categories and add to the poster as new nouns are identified.
Punctuation: capitals for proper nouns
Point out and teach as they arise in shared texts, eg for specific character names.
Articles and other pointers
• Introduce examples of indefinite articles (a dog, an orange) and the definite article (the boy on the seat).
• Point them out or have students find them in big books and online texts.
• Encourage students to include an article in their response to questions: What is this/that?, eg a book, the door.
• Teach about pointers which ‘point’ to nouns. These can be articles (a, an, the) or pronouns including
demonstratives (this, these) and possessives (my, yours, its, hers).
• Locate examples in shared reading and the noun they are ‘pointing’ to.
2. Details of number, size, shape and colour
Describers
Typically, in the form of adjectives, these answer the functional question: What is it like? For example, a little
egg; a brown egg.
The order of adjectives
When there is more than one adjective, they typically occur in a culturally agreed order. Although not entirely
fixed there is a common (culturally accepted) order of adjectives:
Order of adjectives in noun groups
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Noun/
thing
Opinion Size
Shape/
weight/
length
Condi-
tion
Age Colour Pattern Origin Material Purpose/use
beautiful
boring
stupid
delicious
useful
lovely
comfort-
table
big
small
tall
huge
tiny
round
square
circular
skinny
fat
heavy
straight
long
short
broken
cold
hot
wet
hungry
rich
dirty
old
young
new
ancient
antique
white
blue
greenish
-blue
reddish
-purple
striped
spotted
checked
flowery
American
British
Italian
eastern
Australian
Chilean
gold
wooden
silk
paper
synthetic
cotton
woollen
engagement
sleeping
gardening
shopping
wedding
ring
bag
gloves
bag
dress
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
8 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS
The first 7 categories usually describe something/someone, answering the question: what is it/he/she like?
or what are they like? However, in some contexts they can be classifiers, telling us what kind or what type
of thing it is. Similarly, the last 3 categories are often classifiers telling us what kind or type of person or thing,
but in some cases, they may simply describe. We must always look at the word in context to know what its
function is. For example, compare:
I hate my ancient phone. They explored the ancient Egyptian pyramid.
Describer Classifier
I have a brown teddy bear. We saw a brown bear at the zoo.
Describer Classifier
They use the brown sap from a rubber tree.
Describer Classifier
I was frightened by a silly, rubber toy brown snake.
Describer Classifier
The function influences the order, so that when brown is used as classifier it will come after any describers,
eg rubber.
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Direct students to pictures of characters in narratives like Who Sank the Boat?
• Ask: ‘What is the mouse like?’, eg tiny, little, white.
• Provide sentence beginnings and model using the adjective:
> to describe, eg The mouse was little.
> as part of a noun group, eg There was a little mouse.
• Students repeat in chorus and practice with other adjectives in pairs.
• Read The Very Hungry Caterpillar. On each page, ask students, ‘What is the caterpillar eating?’, eg three plums.
• Ask: ‘What are the plums like?’, eg purple, big.
• Model how to add a number (or an amount, eg a slice of) then a describing adjective before a noun, eg three
purple plums using a red card for each word.
• In pairs, students manipulate cards to create descriptions matching visuals from the story, eg The caterpillar
ate three purple plums.
Plural forms
• Teach and point out regular plural forms ‘s’ and ‘es’.
• Focus on examples of irregular plurals as they arise.
• Practise listening for and enunciating plural endings through links in mathematics and games, eg bingo,
go fish, shopping.
• Model adding adjectives to pictures of characters and using them to orally describe their size, colour, etc.
• Students draw their favourite character, verbalise, then record suitable describers on their pictures.
• Model using student pictures and describers to create simple sentences about their favourite characters
in narratives, eg The purple dragon flew over the city.
• Students create sentences in pairs and then independently.
• Create word cards to be manipulated to create a noun group to complete a clause.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS | 9
3. Imaginative description
beyond size, shape and colour
Resource 2: Early noun group chart (or a modified
version with the classifier column removed) can be
introduced to students at this point or slowly built
up in the previous sequence.
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Introduce describers that express opinions or are
evocative, using The Very Hungry Caterpillar as
a prompt. Ask students to close their eyes and
imagine they are eating fruits from the story, eg
three plums. Ask:
> ‘What are they like?’ ‘What does it feel/taste
like?’, eg juicy, sweet.
• Model and jointly rewrite sentences from the story
together, eg He ate three juicy, purple plums.
Point out that these more ‘opinionative’ describers
(juicy) come before the more factual ones (purple).
• Create a class rewrite with student pairs illustrating
and rewriting a page.
• Write descriptive poems by building the noun group
step-by-step, such as:
> plums
> three plums
> three purple plums
> three juicy, purple plums
> The caterpillar ate three juicy, purple plums.
Punctuation: commas
A comma is used between 2 describers.
4. Factual description beyond
size, shape and colour
Engage
• Introduce a study about animals through an
excursion or incursion.
• Talking about photos of the animals seen, read factual
books and watch short videos about these animals.
• Read All Kinds of Animals.
1
• Examine photographs in the book and discuss
body features.
• Students suggest alternative words to describe
specific body features.
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Display photographs of animals including close-
ups of their features.
• List nouns for specific features, eg tail, teeth, fur.
• Ask students, ’What is it like?’ and build short noun
groups, eg grey fur, fluffy ears, a black nose,
strong claws.
• Create 2 posters of topic vocabulary:
> key nouns, eg body, fur, eyes, scales, legs, teeth
> adjectives as describers, eg long, strong, grey,
powerful, smooth.
• Create cards for body parts, suitable describers
and pointers: a, an.
• Students take turns to pair up cards to describe
specific body parts of the animal.
• Model using arrows and labelling parts of an animal
(sharp, black claws; a flat, black nose) as suggested
by the students.
• In groups, students label photographs of animals
seen or studied.
• Students draw their favourite animal and label
the body parts of the animal, including adjectives
to describe each body part.
• Play ‘Who am I?’ where students each have a
picture of an animal. Model how to play, having
students guess the animal. Provide pictures and
sentence starters to scaold, eg ‘This animal has
. It has and .’
Students play game in small groups.
• Model making a book about a chosen animal.
Draw the animal on the cover and on each page,
illustrate a specific body part, eg teeth. Under
each body part, jointly construct a sentence such
as Crocodiles have sharp teeth. Model how to
include 2 adjectives to describe using a comma,
eg big, sharp teeth.
• Students make their own descriptive books
about an animal of their choice with a partner
or independently.
Subject-verb agreement
2
Use cloze and matching activities, eg:
A kangaroo
has a strong tail.
Kangaroos
have strong tails.
1
Hartman H (2014) All Kinds of Animals, Unite for Literacy, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/KnowAnimals (accessed November 2020)
2
See Verbs and verb groups for more teaching and learning activities.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
10 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS
5. Descriptions including classification
Classifiers tell us ‘What type or what kind?’ They can be:
• nouns functioning as classifiers, eg an emu egg, an apple tree, a cotton shirt
• adjectives, such as Aboriginal people, nocturnal animal
• -ed/en or -ing words, eg running shoes, married woman.
Engage
• Read Old Hat New Hat. Discuss what the hats look like and consider who might wear them.
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Provide visuals and/or ‘dress-up’ props for dierent types of hats. Include those from familiar fairy tales and
narratives such as The Cat in the Hat and those representing real-life choices, such as those related to jobs.
• Students brainstorm others, eg a magician’s hat, crowns, a wizard’s hat, a bike helmet, a school hat, a police hat.
• Label drawings describing features, eg size (big, tall), colour (white, yellow), shape (pointy, flat, puy) and
opinion (funny, beautiful, ugly).
• Introduce another way to add detail about the noun, ie ‘what kind’ it is. Introduce the functional term: classifier.
• Together build up noun groups that include a classifier, eg a green school hat; a blue police hat; a big, puy
chef hat; a black and red pirate hat.
• Point out that classifiers are often nouns, eg school. ‘School’ is a noun but it is not the key noun. We are not
talking about a school. We are talking about a hat. Hat is the key noun and school is doing the job of a classifier
here, telling us what kind of hat.
• Create a chart to classify each part of the noun group with students:
Pointer
(Points to the noun –
Which one? Whose?)
Describer
(What is it like?)
Classifier
(What kind or what
type is it?)
Key noun
(What person, place or thing
are we talking about?)
a dark green school hat
a red and black pirate hat
her dark blue police hat
that big, puy, white chef hat
• Have each part (pointers, describers, classifiers) on individual cards. The key noun ‘hat’ can be on the chart.
• Choose a hat and pose questions, eg:
> ‘What kind of hat is this?’ to identify the classifier
> ‘What is this hat like?’ to locate adjectives as describers.
• Students respond and place the classifier and describers in the correct columns.
• Once each line is complete ask, ‘Who wears this hat?’, eg We wear a dark green school hat; A pirate wears
a red and black pirate hat.
• Use noun groups from the chart to create sentences in pairs. Sentence starters can be provided to scaold,
eg She is wearing … He is wearing …
• In pairs, students complete a cloze activity based on the hats and head gear on display (omitting the bracketed
words on the chart below):
Example cloze with possible answers shown in brackets
Pointer
(Points to the noun –
Which one? Whose?)
Describer
(What is it like?)
Classifier
(What kind or what
type is it?)
Key noun
(What person, place or thing
are we talking about?)
the dancer’s (sparkly) hat
a colourful, pointed (wizard) hat
his (golden) (royal) crown
my (pink and purple) (bike) helmet
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS | 11
• Students use the noun groups to write a sentence
about each hat.
• Read a description of a character. The description
used should link to a familiar character or topic
so that students can connect to prior knowledge.
On a second read, students listen for the noun
groups that will help them to draw the character:
Digger was a working dog. He had dirty brown
fur because he just loved to roll in mud after he
herded the sheep. His big, pointy ears stuck up
above his head. Some people said that he looked
like a baby kangaroo. His long, fluffy tail pointed
up to the sky. Digger had bright blue eyes and it
looked like he had the biggest smile on his face
every single day.
• Reread the text slowly and ask students to draw
the character. Repeat several times giving students
ample time to draw.
• Share drawings and ask students if they had
enough information to draw a picture of the dog.
Explore why.
• Jointly deconstruct the noun groups from the text
using Resource 2.
• Display a version of the text where the noun groups
have been stripped to the bare essentials (pointer
and key noun). Have the original text available for
comparison.
Digger was a dog. He had fur. His ears stuck up
above his head. Some people said that he looked
like a baby kangaroo. His tail pointed up to the sky.
Digger had eyes and it looked like he had a smile
on his face every single day.
• Discuss, using prompt questions such as: How is
this text dierent? What dierence does this make
for the reader? What have we lost? Why do you
think the author added all those other details in
the original text? Why is this important for readers?
• Explain that authors of picture books don’t use as
many detailed descriptions because the pictures
provide this information.
• Display images from familiar picture books.
• Ask students to imagine that there are no pictures
in Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See? and
consider how they could help the reader imagine
what the bear looks like using words.
• Students complete a cloze exercise using describers
and/or classifiers to add detail about the bear.
Compare descriptions, eg The bear
saw a red bird.
The large, brown grizzly bear saw a red bird.
The huge, brown bear saw a red bird.
The scary brown bear saw a red bird.
• Students expand noun groups to describe other
characters, eg a tiny little red bird.
• Make explicit, using examples and discussing
eects, that:
> longer is not necessarily better
> not every section of the noun group chart needs
to be used to create a vivid description.
• When modelling examples or reading authentic
texts, point out those that use more precise words
(the majestic castle) to describe a key noun in
comparison to longer, simpler examples (the big,
tall, shiny castle).
Extend the learning
With older students, use Just Another Ordinary Day,
where Clement sets a playful dierence between the
written description and the images.
• Read the book without showing the pictures.
Then display the written text from a selected page.
• Ask students to draw what they imagine they would
see on the page.
• Repeat with several pages then reveal the pictures
and discuss.
• Students work in pairs to rewrite sentences to
include expanded noun groups that would help
a reader to visualise what is depicted in the pictures.
• Provide a noun group chart such as Resource 2
to support the process.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
12 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
LEVELS 56 LEAPING TO LEVELS 79
LEVELS 5–6 LEAPING TO LEVELS 7–9
Learning sequence Language in focus Genres
6. More detailed and precise
description
• more specialised key nouns
• adding detail in front of the noun:
describers and classifiers to provide
more detailed descriptions
• sequential explanations
• descriptive and classifying reports
7. Qualifying phrases: which
one/s are we talking about?
• adding detail after the noun: short
prepositional phrases as qualifiers
• narratives
• descriptive reports
8. Qualifying clauses: which
one/s are we talking about?
• embedded relative clauses as
qualifiers
• narratives
• procedures
• explanations
• historical accounts
9. Packing factual
information into noun groups
• adding detail in front of the noun:
describers and classifiers
• adding detail after the noun: phrases
and clauses as qualifiers
• descriptive and classifying reports
10. Nominalisations to build
technicality
• nominalisations to express more
specialised and abstract meanings
• expositions: arguments,
discussions
• explanations
Suggested mentor texts
Books (bolding indicates that the sequence is based around this text) Learning sequence
For younger students
Baker J (2016) Circle, Candlewick Press 7
Bland N (2015) The Very Noisy Bear, Scholastic Press 7
Morgan S & Erzinger T (2014) A Feast for Wombat, Omnibus Books 7
For older students
Dahl R (1961) James and the Giant Peach, Pun
3
7, 8
French J (2011) Nanberry Black Brother White, HarperCollins (historical fiction) 7
Millard G (2005) Angel Breath, ABC Books 7
Miller D (2003) Refugees, Lothian Children’s Books 7
Trivzas E (1993) Three Little Wolves and the Big Bad Pig, Heinemann 7
Thiele C (1964) Storm Boy, Seal Books (Chap 1, paras 1 & 2 for setting description) 7
Wheatley N (1997) Highway, Omnibus Books 7
Winton T (1997) Blueback, Penguin 7
Dahl R (1964) Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, Pun 8
Fox M (1984) Wilfred Gordan McDonald Partridge, Kane Miller BookPub
4
8
3
Uses a variety of embedded relative clauses to build description.
4
Use of who to relate to people, that to explain what a memory is, and which to relate to objects. See also the associated Reading
Australia unit, available at http://tlinsa.2.vu/raFox1984Partridge (accessed January 2021).
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS | 13
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
6. More detailed and precise description
Engage
• Choose a curriculum topic, such as a sequential explanation of a life cycle or recycling bottles.
• In pairs, students brainstorm and record predicted topic words in English and L1, eg penguin life cycle: bird,
egg, chick, mother, father, baby.
• View and read texts to build topic-specific vocabulary and knowledge, eg parent, adult, male, female.
• Add to topic vocabulary lists, including more technical choices.
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Revise/teach that in front of a noun we can add a word that tells what type of thing it is: classifiers.
• Point out that classifiers are important features of noun groups in factual texts, eg penguin: male, juvenile,
fairy, emperor; bottle: perfume, gas, plastic, glass.
• Hold up a noun card and students write classifiers as quickly as they can on a small whiteboard. Begin with
everyday nouns, eg animal: farm, native, Australian. Then move to topic related noun, eg egg: chicken,
penguin, emu, fish.
Punctuation and classifiers
Capital letters are not required for names of animal species, eg golden bandicoot, rainbow lorikeet, emperor
penguin. Capitals are only required when part of the species name contains a proper noun such as Kangaroo
Island dunnart or Australian magpie.
• Read a model sequential explanation related to your topic, eg Circumstances – Resource 2: The life cycle
of an emperor penguin.
• Explain that in factual texts like these, authors use noun groups to provide detail and important information
about the topic. Words that classify the type of animals or objects being described (classifiers) or describe
what they are like (describers).
• Display a model text eg The life cycle of an emperor penguin: penguin, egg, chick, feet, liquid, days.
Highlight or ‘box’ key nouns
.
• Draw up a chart to deconstruct noun groups built around key nouns:
Pointer
(which/whose?)
➔
Quantifier
(how many/
how much?)
m
Describer
(what is it like?)
X
Classifier
(what kind/
what type?)
q
Key noun
(what thing/s
or person/s
are we talking
about?)
k
Qualifier (more
information –
which one/s in
particular?)
:
the adult female
emperor
penguin
a single egg
her mate
a special milky liquid
the male emperor penguin
the hungry chick
the growing chick
its parents
the large chick
14 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
• Create cards with examples of pointers, describers
and classifiers for students to manipulate and
match to key nouns.
• Display noun groups and pose questions to identify
the word/words matching each column, eg:
> Which word points to the key noun liquid? – a.
> Which words or adjectives describe liquid? –
special, milky.
• Point out that all the words work together as a
noun group. Model and have students respond
to questions using a complete sentence, eg:
> ‘What do the penguin chicks first drink?’
‘The chicks drink a special milky liquid.’
• Use noun groups from the text in factual sentences
describing parts of the life cycle.
• Discuss why multiple classifiers are often used for
a factual text like this to provide detail and define
the type of animal or thing.
Noun groups and participants
The key nouns selected in the previous sequence
acted as participants in the text and so have been
highlighted red. Be sure to make clear that not all
nouns are participants as some are found within
circumstances. For example, from prepositional
phrases acting as circumstances in this model text
(which would be colour-coded blue).
Pointer Key noun
his feet
his stomach
the male penguin’s feet
Quantifier Key noun
two months
about 50 days
7. Qualifying phrases: which
one/s are we talking about?
Prepositional phrase as qualifier
5
These add more information after the key noun.
In the following examples, the noun group is bolded
and the qualifier is underlined.
The small marsupial has a brown coat with white
patches.
The young girl in the bright blue dress danced
across the room.
The people of ancient China were mostly poor farmers.
He stood at the edge of the cliff.
Prepositional phrase form
A prepositional phrase comprises a preposition
followed by a noun group. This means that,
when a prepositional phrase acts as a qualifier,
there is a noun group within a noun group, eg
The young girl in the bright blue dress
.
Engage
• Read and enjoy James and the Giant Peach.
• Discuss the author’s descriptions of characters
and places, eg ‘the biggest, fattest, pinkest, juiciest
earthworm in the world’. Ask: ‘What do you see
in your mind when you hear this?’ Have students
draw what they see.
• Draw out that authors build noun groups that help
us to visualise and imagine characters and places
in their stories. They do this by adding detail before
key nouns and after them.
• Explain that they will be learning how to add detail
after the noun using a qualifier.
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Choose and display a sentence with a noun
group acting as a participant, eg ‘And luckily for
us, we have the biggest, fattest, pinkest, juiciest
earthworm in the world.’
• Students use ‘who’ or ‘what’ prompt to locate
the participant, eg What do we have? the biggest,
fattest, pinkest, juiciest earthworm in the whole
world.
• Underline or put a box around the entire noun group.
5
See also page 4 ‘Prepositional phrases as qualifiers’ and Circumstances – Resource 1: Circumstances chart, for a list of commonly
used prepositions.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS | 15
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
• Students identify the key noun by asking, if we strip this down, what’s the one word that says what we’re
talking about here? What do we have? Put a box around ‘earthworm’ and label as key noun.
And luckily for us, we have the biggest, fattest, pinkest, juiciest earthworm in the world.
pointer
describers
key noun
qualifier
• Focus students on the detail before the noun.
• Ask what functions/jobs these words do, drawing out:
> adjectives biggest, fattest, pinkest, juiciest describe what the earthworm is like – label as describers
> the (definite article) points to the noun – label it pointer.
• Now focus on the detail after the noun. Point out that while it may look like a circumstance because it is
a prepositional phrase, it is not a circumstance because it is not telling us where they have the worm. It is
telling us more about the earthworm. This extra detail after the noun is called a qualifier – label it qualifier.
• Repeat for other examples, with noun groups colour-coded and underlined:
‘…and the slightest little snap of a twig makes you jump.’
‘And next to the Spider, there was a giant Lady-bird with nine spots on her scarlet shell.’
‘The tunnel was damp and murky, and all around him there was the curious bittersweet smell of fresh peach.’
‘And then all at once, little shivers of excitement started running over the skin on James’ back.’
‘Something that looked like a gigantic fly without wings was standing upside down upon its six legs in the
middle of the ceiling, and the tail end of this creature seemed to be literally on fire.’
• Make explicit that some examples contain additional qualifiers located in the circumstance: over the skin
on James’ back; in the middle of the ceiling, reminding students that noun groups can be found in both
participants and circumstances.
• In pairs, deconstruct the noun groups and place them in the noun group chart:
Pointer
(which
or
whose?)
➔
Quantifier
(how
many/how
much?)
m
Intensifier
(to what
degree?)
!
Describer
(what‘s it
like?)
X
Classifier
(What kind
or what
type is it?)
q
Thing KEY NOUN
(who or what
are we talking
about?)
k
Qualifier
(which one/s in
particular?)
:
the slightest little snap of a twig
a giant Lady-bird with nine spots on
her scarlet shell
the curious
bittersweet
smell of fresh peach
little shivers of excitement
the skin on James’ back
a gigantic fly without wings
the middle of the ceiling
the tail end of this creature
• Students use noun groups to create their own sentences, oral and written.
• Display a picture of a character or object from the story, eg the peach, James or Miss Spider.
• Provide a sentence from the text minus the detail around the noun. Students create and record expanded
descriptions including pointers, (quantifiers if relevant), describers and classifiers before the noun, and
prepositional phrases as qualifiers after the key noun, eg the massive peach with the large tunnel in it; the
huge, sweet smelling peach on the hill.
• Provide sentences, with bare noun groups, that students can use to create expanded key noun groups to:
> create a sense of character, eg The spider opened her mouth and ran a tongue over her lips.
> create a setting/atmosphere, eg He lived peacefully with his mother and father in a house.
• Students locate examples of noun groups with qualifiers in the text. Record them on posters.
16 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
8. Qualifying clauses: which
one/s are we talking about?
Relative clauses
A relative clause
6
begins with a relative pronoun,
eg who for people; which or that for things.
While either which or that can be used to add more
information about an animal or thing, that is more
commonly used for qualifiers within a noun group.
In some contexts, people prefer to use ‘who’ for an
animal, for example:
• in a narrative where the animal has a name and
human qualities
• in a recount about one’s pet
• in an emotive argument about protecting animal
rights.
Engage
• Display an assortment of lollies or confectionery.
• Students describe their favourites, including what
they taste like and look like. Record descriptions.
• Read excerpt from Charlie and the Chocolate
Factory:
‘And then again,’ Grandpa Joe went on speaking
very slowly now so that Charlie wouldn’t miss a
word. ‘Mr Willy Wonka can make marshmallows
that taste of violets, and rich caramels that change
colour every ten seconds as you suck them, and
little feathery sweets that melt away deliciously
the moment you put them between your lips.
He can make chewing-gum that never loses its
taste, and sugar balloons that you can blow up
to enormous sizes before you pop them with a
pin and gobble them up. And, by the most secret
method, he can make lovely blue birds’ eggs with
black spots on them, and when you put one of
these in your mouth, it gradually gets smaller and
smaller until suddenly there is nothing left except
a tiny little pink sugary baby bird sitting on the tip
of your tongue.’
(Dahl, 1964:23)
• Students describe how they felt after listening
to the text and what made them feel like this.
• Ask if they have read any Roald Dahl books and
to identify what they like about them.
• Draw out that Roald Dahl brings characters and
objects in his stories to life through his vivid
descriptions which help readers to create clear
pictures in their minds. One way he does this is
by the detail he adds to nouns, both before and
after them.
• Explain that you will examine how Dahl adds
details after the key noun in Charlie and the
Chocolate Factory.
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Display the previous excerpt from Charlie and the
Chocolate Factory. Jointly identify the key nouns
that are described.
• Circle or highlight each one and then revise the
elements coming before the key nouns. Identify
and label any numeratives, describers and classifiers.
• Point out that Roald Dahl has also added detail to
these noun groups by including information after
the nouns.
• Revisit prepositional phrases as qualifiers looking
at the example ‘lovely blue birds’ eggs with black
spots on them’.
• Students match key nouns, describers/classifiers
and qualifiers on strips of paper to build noun
groups as below:
Describers/
classifiers
Key nouns Qualifiers
marshmallows that taste of violets
rich caramels that change
colour every ten
seconds as you
suck them
little
feathery
sweets that melt away
deliciously the
moment you put
them between
your lips
chewing gum that never loses
its taste
sugar balloons that you can blow
up to enormous
sizes
• Examine examples noting that most of the
description comes after the noun.
• Students look for patterns in the qualifiers. Elicit
features and make a class description/definition
including elements such as:
> start with relative pronoun that
> they are clauses because they contain a verb
(relative clauses).
• Introduce the term embedded clause, explaining
that it is not a separate idea or chunk of meaning,
but rather part of the noun group. We need to
include it to answer 'What?', eg What can he make?
Not just any marshmallows, but marshmallows
that taste of violets. (This is in contrast to using
relative pronouns to add elaborating related ideas
in subordinate clauses.
7
)
6
See also Glossary for embedded clauses and pages 4–5 ‘Embedded phrases and clauses’.
7
See Sentence structure 6 ‘Relative pronouns: which and where’.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS | 17
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
• Pairs of students look at, taste and orally describe an allocated lolly. Partners share and record words and
phrases to describe physical appearance, taste, sensation or feelings. They use their descriptions to jointly
write a sentence about their lolly using the relative pronoun that. Provide a sentence starter to scaold, eg:
> I like the … that … (Students can choose alternative mental verbs (love, enjoy, don’t like, prefer …).
• Students write these on strips of paper and read to the class.
• Display each group’s description matched to a visual and have all students use the list to write a text modelled
on Roald Dahl’s example.
• Discuss how author’s choices in noun groups help to build characterisation and/or setting, mood and
atmosphere. Brainstorm dierent moods and feelings, eg sad, excited, reassured, terrified, proud, embarrassed.
• Provide a short extract that is bare or missing noun groups and adjectives, eg:
> She was wearing a hat and a cloak.
> Her hair went down to the floor.
> I felt … as she reached out to me with her fingers.
The noun groups 'a hat', 'a coat' and 'her hair' function as participants answering 'what': 'What was she wearing?
and 'What went down to the floor?' The noun group 'her fingers' is part of a prepositional phrase 'with her fingers',
which functions as a circumstances telling us 'how'; 'How did she reach out to me?'
• Create a chart to jointly construct noun groups to create a particular mood, eg excited:
her pointed, purple wizard’s hat
a shiny, dark purple cloak that was covered in sparkling silver stars
her flowing silver hair
her slender fingers with long, purple painted nails
• Insert the noun groups into the original text, checking the desired mood is created and maintained.
• Pairs of students repeat task to create expanded noun groups that create a dierent mood.
Links to other genres
Procedures and explanations, eg a silver covering that reflects the light; the beans that soaked the longest.
Historical accounts, eg Aboriginal people who were taken from their families; laws which stated the children
could be taken from their families.
• Provide groups with dierent examples of noun groups. Groups cut them up so that the qualifiers are on
separate cards. Students swap cards with another group and then match cards.
9. Packing factual information into noun groups
Engage
• Read and view factual texts based on a class topic of study, eg for a topic on spiders, read Meet Rosie!
8
and
view the short clip Tarantula: Amazing Animals.
9
• Examine and discuss the role of visuals and written text in providing information about the topic.
• Identify and note key facts about the physical features of tarantulas. Students draw and label diagrams.
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Display key facts describing the physical features noted, eg:
> large
> hairy
> eight eyes
> eight legs.
8
Triplett S (2017) Meet Rosie!, Unite for Literacy, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/MeetRosie (accessed November 2020)
9
National Geographic Kids (2016) ‘Tarantula: Amazing Animals’, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Tarantula
(accessed November 2020)
18 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
• Use the notes to write simple sentences about tarantulas, eg Tarantulas are large spiders.
> They are hairy.
> They have eight eyes.
> They have eight legs.
• Highlight that each sentence contains only one piece of information about tarantulas. Identify nouns, including
body parts described (tarantulas, spiders, eyes, legs) and the words used to describe (large, hairy, eight).
• Explain that, as writers, they can choose to pack more information into a single sentence rather than having
lots of short sentences.
• Model and explain how to use these facts in one more developed sentence including a prepositional phrase
as qualifier:
Tarantulas are large, hairy spiders with eight eyes and eight legs
.
describers
k-noun
qualifier
• Discuss the eect for a reader.
• In pairs, students use key facts collectively compiled by the class to create developed sentences. Provide
a pattern to scaold, using preposition ‘with’ to begin qualifier, eg Tarantulas are spiders with
. Possible student examples: Tarantulas are huge, furry spiders with two pointy fangs; Tarantulas
are huge, furry arachnids with two sharp fangs.
• Point out the noun group within each qualifier (two pointy fangs, two sharp fangs) and highlight how these
add detail about tarantulas.
• Generate and teach use of alternative key nouns to refer to the topic to increase technicality, eg tarantulas,
spiders, arachnids.
• Model recording key facts about body parts using mind mapping strategy.
Mind-mapping notes
a/an
oval shaped
black spots
looks like a ladybird
largered abdomen
black
stripes – white
eight
jointed
furrythick legs
• Model using Resource 3: Nouns group chart, as below, to combine facts in expanded sentences including
prepositional phrase as qualifiers using ‘with’ and adding relative clauses as qualifiers using ‘that’, eg This
spider has eight jointed legs with black and white stripes. It has a red abdomen with black spots.
The spider has a red abdomen that looks like a ladybird.
Pointer
(which?
whose?)
➔
Quantifier
(how many?
how much?)
m
Describer
(what is it like?)
X
Classifier
(what kind?
what type?)
q
Key noun
(what thing/s
or person/s
are we talking
about?)
k
Qualifier
(more information
– which one/s in
particular?)
:
a red abdomen with black spots
eight jointed legs with black and
white stripes
a red abdomen that looks like
a lady bird
• Students research a similar topic, eg other spiders, insects or animals, and create mind-mapping notes.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS | 19
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
10. Nominalisations to build technicality
Engage
• Discuss sports that students participate in, both in and out of school.
• In pairs, students discuss advantages and disadvantages of playing sport for young people. Record common
reasons, summarise and add to a collective chart:
Should young people play sport?
Pros (advantages) Cons (disadvantages)
• get us fit
• have fun
• learn to work with others
• get better at kicking or scoring
• get hurt
• have to go to practice
• might let team down
• pay a lot for fees, uniforms and equipment
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Begin by looking at the pros of children participating in sport.
• Students identify verbs and highlight green.
• Explain that to convince and persuade an audience to a point of view, it helps to use more formal or
specialised language choices. Display a table to demonstrate the point:
Young people should play sport
Pros ‘Bump up’ the verb choice Change to a noun –
nominalisation
• get us fit
• have fun
• learn to work with others
• get better at kicking or scoring
• makes us fit
• enjoy it
• cooperate with others
• improve/develop kicking and
scoring (skills)
• fitness
• enjoyment
• cooperation
• improvement/development
• Guide students to ‘bump up’ verb choices, recording in column 2.
• Explain that to sound more formal and expert, verbs can be changed into nouns. This is called nominalisation.
Model and support students to do this together, recording in column 3.
• Students share what they notice about the endings or suxes of these nouns.
• Underline suxes and explain that when verbs are turned into nouns, common suxes are used such as,
-ness, -ment and -ion. Others include: -ance, -tion, -ence.
• Create jumbled lists of verbs and nouns linked to class topic/s, such as the verbs and nouns in the table below,
for students to match. This will support students with future independent writing.
Verbs Nouns
• get better at
• practise, train
• keep trying, persist
• have fun, enjoy
• solve
• encourage
• work with others
• play, take part in
• talk, communicate
• cooperation, team work
• participation, performance
• encouragement
• improvement, development
• communication
• practice, training
• enjoyment
• solution
• persistence
20 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
• Create posters of verbs connected to the topic with matching nouns or nominalised forms. Students sort
nouns, organising them according to the sux pattern.
• Show students a spoken-like introduction to an argument on the topic: ‘Young people should play sport’:
use some of the ideas they collectively recorded. Point out that the verbs have been underlined.
Young people should play sport. Playing sport is good because they can keep fit, learn to work with others
and get better at kicking and scoring.
• Jointly examine the first sentence, identifying the verb ‘play’ and then ‘bumping it up’, eg take part, participate.
• Now nominalise participate, ie participation, and then rewrite the first sentence using this nominalisation,
eg Participation in sport is important for young people; Participation in sport is valuable for young people.
• Have students examine the word ‘good’ in the second sentence. Brainstorm more formal alternatives for
‘good things’ or ‘pros’, eg advantages, benefits, positives.
• Point out that they have just nominalised: the adjective ‘good’ has been changed to a noun: advantage or benefit.
• Discuss choices for ‘cons’ such as disadvantages, costs, negatives.
• Students rewrite the beginning of sentence 2, Playing sport is good because …, eg:
> Sport has many benefits such as …
> Sport provides valuable benefits such as …
> There are many advantages of sport such as …
• Students use the examples of nominalisation from the above table to complete the introduction. For students
requiring further scaolding, provide a cloze for example:
Participation in sport is important for young people. Sport provides many benefits such as ,
and .
Extend the learning
10
Students use nominalised reasons, ie improved fitness, cooperation and improvement or development of skills,
in topic sentences, eg Firstly, improved fitness is a benefit of playing sport. Another advantage of playing sport
is skill development.
10
See also Cohesive devices 10 ‘Sentence openers and text connectives for structure and orientation‘.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS | 21
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
LEVELS 79 LEAPING TO LEVELS 1012
LEVELS 7–9 LEAPING TO LEVELS 10–12
Learning sequence Language in focus Genres
11. Embedded relative
clauses to specify which
people, places or things
• adding detail after the noun: qualifiers
• embedded clauses using relative
pronouns: which, that, where, who,
whose, whom
• definitions
• descriptive, compositional and
classifying reports
• explanations
• expositions: arguments,
discussions
12. Imagery in noun groups
with multiple qualifiers
• adding detail before the noun:
describers and classifiers
• adding detail after the noun –
qualifiers:
> pruning embedded clauses
> multiple qualifiers
• narratives
• poetry
13. Nominalised cause-effect • key nouns – nominalisation: more
specialised, including for cause
• explanations: factorial and
consequential
• expositions: arguments,
discussions
• investigation summaries
14. Compacted details
to carry ideas forward
• key nouns – nominalisation:
> more specialised and technical
key nouns and classifiers
> varied noun groups to refer to key
people, places, things throughout
a text
• explanations: causal, factorial
and consequential
• biographies
• historical accounts
Suggested mentor text
Books (bolding indicates that the sequence is based around this text) Learning sequence
Bancroft B (2010) Why I Love Australia, Hardie Grant Children’s Publishing 12
11. Embedded relative clauses to specify which people, places
or things
Revise
Revise qualifiers
• Function: add more information after the key noun, typically to specify or restrict which one/s we are
talking about.
• Form: prepositional phrases or clauses. Typically clauses are relative clauses, but they may have been pruned
down to non-finite clauses.
11
Revise nouns and pronouns
• nouns represent people, places and things (concrete or abstract)
• relative pronouns relate back to a something in the previous clause.
11
For information and activities for relative and non-finite clauses as subordinate clauses that elaborate rather than specify
or restrict, see Sentence structure 8 ‘Relative pronouns: which, where, who, whose and whom’ and 9 ‘Non-finite clauses:
-ing and -ed verb forms’. See also pages 4–5 ‘Embedded phrases and clauses’.
22 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Create 2 lists:
Nouns Relative pronouns
people
places
things
that, where, which, who, whose
• Students match relative pronouns for people, for places and for things:
> who or whose – for people
> which or that – for things
> where – for places.
Which or that?
Either can be used to add more information about a thing. However, that is more commonly used to add
an embedded clause as a qualifier in a noun group. Which is more commonly used to add an elaborating
subordinate clause.
Who, whose or whom?
• Who relates to a person who will be the subject of the clause that follows. (Equivalent pronouns: I, he, she,
they, we.) The woman who had saved a man’s life received a medal.
• Whom relates to a person who will be the object of the clause that follows. It often follows a preposition,
eg to, for, by. (Equivalent pronouns: me, him, her, them, us.) He wanted to thank the woman to whom he
owed his life.
• Whose is the possessive form and is used to relate to a person who owns something. (Equivalent pronouns:
my, his, her, their, our.) The man whose life had been saved thanked her.
• Create cards relevant to curriculum topic/s. Examples are provided in the table below:
Noun group Relative pronoun
to begin qualifier
Additional information to complete qualifier
Local people who They would otherwise struggle to find work in the area.
An area where The air pressure is low there.
Areas of the country where Aboriginal people had lived there and engineered
elaborate fishing traps.
The line that It is created by the torch light.
A form of renewable energy that It utilises airflow to generate electricity.
Many individuals who They suer from mental health issues.
Digital artist, Daniel Lieske whose His first online graphic novel received rave reviews.
A significant legacy that It has been passed on by the Ancient Romans.
• Students:
> match a noun, relative pronoun and additional information
> rewrite as a noun group with a qualifier
> discuss changes: removing pronoun: they, it, his or adverb: there, removing punctuation
> make explicit that they have created a noun group and not a complete sentence.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS | 23
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Extend the learning
Students locate and investigate qualifiers in noun groups in dierent genres and learning areas. How similar are
they? How dierent are they and why?
Definitions provide a valuable context to examine qualifiers, eg:
Wind power is a form of renewable energy that utilises airflow to generate electricity.
12. Imagery in noun groups with multiple qualifiers
Engage
• Show the cover of Why I Love Australia.
• Use information from the back of the book to introduce Bronwyn Bancroft as an Australian artist, author
and illustrator.
• Explain that on each double page spread, Bancroft illustrates and describes something she loves about
Australia. Show some of the illustrations.
• Ask students to list 5 things (key nouns) that they love about Australia. Alternatively, or as a follow-up activity,
ask students to list 5 things they love about another country/region they have lived in or visited, or list things
they love about a specific town/region of Australia.
• Examine and compare noun groups in travel brochures. Students create a travel brochure for their area.
• Read the text without showing the illustrations. Students focus on images and/or feelings the words create
for them. In pairs, share 2 or 3 of their strongest images or feelings.
• Reread the book, stopping to show images so students can share their feelings about each page.
• Discuss the poetic nature of the text, which is created through using long noun groups.
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Explain that you will analyse the language resources Bancroft used and then write poems modelled on them.
• Provide students with 5 to 10 noun groups from the text on strips of paper.
• Model/jointly locate the key noun in one noun group, highlight and label it. Repeat for 2 more.
• Students share what they notice about these noun groups, eliciting that most of the detail comes after the noun.
• Introduce/revise the term qualifier.
• Jointly analyse and label the parts of the 3 noun groups.
The table below provides the full analysis and accompanying teacher notes.
Analysis of the functional elements of noun groups from Bronwyn Bancroft’s Why I Love Australia
1 big rivers shaped by mystical beings, flowing from the mountains to the sea
describer k-noun qualifiers
2 boab tree families bountiful in shape, standing on the plains
classifiers
k-noun
qualifiers
2 classifiers: What type of families? tree families. What type of trees? boab trees. Note use of personification.
3 floating fields of billowing grasslands where eagles soar
describer k-noun
qualifiers
Note the use of alliteration: floating fields and assonance: floating, billowing.
Continued on page 24.
24 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
4 suburban homes that chatter under a patchwork of rooftops
classifier
k-noun
qualifiers
Note the use of personification (chatter) and imagery/metaphor (a patchwork).
5 waves that pound beaches and make patterns with driftwood and shells
k-noun
qualifiers
Note the use of onomatopoeia (pound).
6 gorges that plummet into serpentine shadows
k-noun qualifiers
7 modern city lights like a jewelled necklace adorning an ancient landscape
describer
classifier
k-noun
qualifiers
What are the lights like? modern. What kind of lights? city lights.
modern could also be seen as describer of city. Some may see it is a classifier. In this context modern
and ancient are describers, rather than technical classifiers of cities or landscapes. Note also the use
of simile.
8* cloaks of white that drape the rocky crags of snowy mountains
k-noun
qualifiers
Note that this could have been written as white cloaks and discuss the eect of the change. Bancroft’s
choice puts more emphasis on white and continues the pattern of putting most or all of the detail after
the noun, which is creating a poetic eect.
9* the twisted trees and sandy soil of the bushland scrub in springtime
pointer describer k-noun describer k-noun
qualifiers
Here, there are 2 key nouns: 2 things she loves. Each key noun has its own describer, but the pointer
and the qualifiers relate to both.
Note also the use of alliteration: twisted trees; sandy soils.
10* the soft edges of crusted salt pans that create drawings on the sand
quantifier group
describer
classifier
k-noun
qualifiers
the soft edges of works together as a group to identify which part of the thing.
* Examples 8 to 10 introduce other complexities, so analyse them together at a later point.
• Pairs continue identifying the key noun, labelling it and the other parts of the noun group in other examples.
• Talk through analysis as a class.
• Students identify any noun groups that created strong images or feelings for them. (If one of their strongest
is missing, they can revisit the book later to locate and analyse it.)
• In pairs, they share what words/choices had the most impact for them and why. Encourage them to name
any literary devices they can see/hear Bancroft using, such as alliteration, assonance, simile and metaphor,
personification, onomatopoeia.
• As a whole group, identify literary devices, evocative word choices and their eects, which may include
rhythm and rhyme.
Many of the verb choices are also powerful in creating imagery and poetic eect. If appropriate as revision/
teaching point, draw attention to them too.
• Explain that because Bancroft has chosen to place most of the detail after the noun, often using multiple
qualifiers, you are going to focus on unpacking the qualifiers.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS | 25
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
• Revise that qualifiers are typically:
> prepositional phrases
> clauses
> a combination of the 2.
• Students turn and talk to remind each other what a prepositional phrase and a clause is. Establish that:
> a prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and is followed by a noun group
> a clause contains a verb.
• Model unpacking the qualifier in one of the sentences using functional questions, ‘Which ones?’ and/or
‘What else can you tell me about them?’, eg:
> Which rivers? Ones that are shaped by mystical beings.
> What else can you tell me about the rivers? They are flowing from the mountains to the sea.
• Confirm with students that there are 2 clauses that are both qualifying river and both have been pruned to
be non-finite clauses: that are
shaped by mystical beings; they are flowing from the mountains to the sea.
• Jointly unpack the qualifiers in other sentences to show the dierent patterns. For example:
> Which fields? Fields of billowing grasslands.
> Which grasslands? Ones where eagles soar.
Here the relative clause qualifies the grasslands, so it is embedded within the prepositional phrase. Notice
there is no comma before the relative clause.
• Make explicit that when we have multiple qualifiers, they may be:
> separate qualifiers both qualifying the key noun, or
> one qualifier may be nested or embedded within another, ie qualifying a noun in the qualifier rather than
the key noun, for example:
big rivers shaped by mystical beings , flowing from the mountains to the sea
floating fields of billowing grasslands where eagles soar
cloaks of white that drape the rocky crags of snowy mountains
• Model breaking down the full pattern of a noun group and using it to create a new evocative noun group:
Original floating fields of billowing grasslands where eagles soar
Functions describer thing qualifier: prepositional
phrase
qualifier: relative
clause
Notes alliteration preposition + noun group where + noun +
verb
Teacher model rambling rivers of gurgling waters where fish abound
• Jointly deconstruct another example and create a new noun group:
Original suburban homes that chatter under a patchwork of rooftops
Functions classifier thing qualifier: relative clause
Notes that + verb + preposition + noun group (where?)
personification and metaphor
Class model desert sands that sleep under a blanket of stars
• Students use the 2 patterns you have deconstructed to create a new noun group around 2 of the things they
love about Australia.
• Students deconstruct another noun group they found evocative and use its pattern to create a new
noun group around a third thing they love about Australia.
26 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
• In pairs, students share their noun groups, receive
feedback and redraft.
• Students illustrate their favourite and add a writer’s
statement.
• Create a class display grouped according to pattern
with the accompanying analysis.
13. Nominalised cause-eect
Expressing cause-eect relationships
A key aspect of Levels 10–12 is expressing cause-eect
relationships through:
• verbs (caused, resulted in)
• circumstances (because of the rain, due to the heat)
• nominalisations (reason, result).
These grammatical resources can be focused on
and developed separately, or as a set. To support the
latter, some text extracts and cause-eect examples
here are the same as those used in Verbs and verb
groups 17 'Causal relating processes' for more precise
relationships of cause-eect and Circumstances
10 'Compacted details of cause and eect'. Those
sequences also point out that, when expressing
cause-eect through verbs and circumstances,
nominalising other elements of the clause is often
necessary.
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Discuss the importance of understanding and
constructing cause-eect relationships in your
chosen context.
• Revise or introduce the dierent resources available
to express cause and eect: conjunctions,
text connectives , circumstances, causal relating
processes and nouns.
• Point out the words cause and effect are nouns.
They are nominalisations of the conjunction
‘because’. Generate synonyms for cause and eect:
Cause Eect
reason
factor
basis
motivation
purpose
intention
result
consequence
impact
outcome
benefit
response
• Point out that some of these can be used as parts
of phrases acting as:
> text connectives: in response, as a result, as a
consequence
> circumstances: in response to …; as a result of …;
as a consequence of …
• Explain that your focus here will be on using cause-
eect nouns as the key noun in a participant noun
group.
12
• Explore patterns such as:
> sentences are typically built around a relating verb
> the nominalised cause/eect can be counted
(one, many), described (serious, key), classified
(environmental) and qualified (of logging, for
continuing logging, in increased soil erosion)
> the nominalised cause/eect can begin or end
the sentence.
One outcome of Trees for Life Logging
was
hundreds more local jobs.
One reason for continuing logging
is more
local jobs.
The extinction of up to fifty species of plants
and/or animals everyday is
a serious
consequence of logging.
Removing trees and their root systems is
a key factor in increased soil erosion.
Logging has many environmental impacts.
• Have sentences using conjunctions or other
resources for comparison and discuss eects
of nominalised choices. Elicit responses, eg:
> more formal, written-like
> makes cause-eect strong
> clear statements – authoritative
> summarises ideas – succinct.
• Draw out where and why they might be used
in texts, eg introductions, topic sentences and
conclusions because they summarise and make
clear points succinctly.
• Students practise creating sentences with
nominalised cause-eect as topic sentences in
factorial and consequential explanations and/or
arguments, discussions; and in investigation
summaries.
13
12
See Circumstances 10 ‘Compacted details of cause and eect‘ and, in particular, the tables and flow charts that chronologically
chart and chain cause and eect.
13
See also Cohesive devices 10 ‘Sentence openers and text connectives for structure and orientation‘.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS | 27
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
14. Compacted details to carry ideas forward
Focus on the noun group
• Select a familiar learning area text.
• Create a cloze by removing noun groups that pick up previously mentioned detail.
• Students complete cloze then compare to the original text and discuss any dierences.
A tropical storm begins when air flows into an area where the air pressure is low.
As this air flows in, it circles around the centre of the area. In the tropics, this air is
warm and moist. Because air rises, this air rises into the atmosphere in a spiral like
a corkscrew.
When this air gets up into the atmosphere, it cools and forms rain clouds. These
and winds create storms at sea. A small number of get bigger and bigger and turn
into cyclones.
• Annotate the original text, discussing how noun groups are being used, eg to repackage, compact and carry
forward previously mentioned ideas. What is the eect of this?
Original text Commentary
A tropical storm begins when air flows into an area where the air
pressure is low.
As this air flows in, it circles around the centre of the low pressure area.
qualifier – specifying type
of area
details in qualifier now
repackaged as classifier
In the tropics, this circling air is warm and moist. action: circles repackaged as
describer (or could use ‘flow in’
to become ‘inflowing air’)
Because warm air rises, this circling air rises into the atmosphere in
a spiral like a corkscrew.
picks up warm
When this warm, moist air gets up into the atmosphere, it cools and
forms rain clouds. These rain clouds and spiralling winds create storms
at sea.
picks up warm and moist
picks up rain clouds spiral
repackaged as describer
A small number of these storms at sea become bigger and bigger and
turn into cyclones.
picks up storms at sea, with
circumstance repackaged
as qualifier
Focus on nominalisation
• Revise: nominalisations can summarise detailed information and become ‘a defined term’,
14
which can be
referred to throughout the text.
• Provide an appropriate learning area example, eg ‘Gravity is an invisible force which pulls all objects towards
the surface of the Earth. This invisible pull of gravity binds everything to the Earth.’
15
• In pairs, students identify what elements have been repackaged and how, eg in what roles? ie ‘pull’ initially
a verb in a qualifier, is nominalised and used as the key noun. ‘Gravity’, initially a nominalised (key noun),
is used as a noun in a qualifier.
Gravity
is
an invisible force which pulls …
Nominalisation Pointer Describer Key noun Qualifying relative clause
This invisible pull of gravity
Pointer Describer Key noun Qualifying prepositional phrase
14
Christie F, Gray P, Martin JR, Macken M, Gray B, & Rothery J (1992) Exploring explanations about astronomy, Language:
A resource for meaning (ch 4), Harcourt Brace Jovanovich: Sydney, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Christie1992ch4astronomy
(accessed November 2020)
15
Example from Christie et al, 1992:203.
28 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
• Model and jointly construct other noun groups to carry this idea of gravity through the text, making explicit
any patterns, eg gravity’s pull; the Earth’s gravitational force; the force of this gravitational pull.
Focus on repackaging notes into text
• Point out that the ability to repackage and compact information through noun groups and nominalisation
makes them valuable resources to avoid plagiarism. They are also valuable when it comes to synthesising
information recorded in note-form.
• Use notes from a current topic of study to model compacting ideas. Think aloud as you construct and/or
have students discuss and annotate the final text with you:
Notes
16
Compact text Commentary
1. Prince Zheng
born in 259BC
2. China = 7 states,
unstable, always
fighting for power
At the time of
Prince Zheng’s birth
in 259BC, China
was made up of 7
unstable states that
were constantly
fighting for power.
1. Verb (born) is nominalised (birth), enabling whole clause
from notes to be packaged as a noun group in a
prepositional phrase as circumstance.
2. Relating process (was made up of) to replace equal sign.
Adjective (unstable), verb (fighting) and circumstances
(always and for power) repackaged as a participant
noun group.
3. lasted 403 BC
to 221 BC = The
Warring States
Period.
This period of
instability lasting
from 403BC to
221 BC is known as
The Warring States
Period.
3. Adjective (unstable) is nominalised (instability) and
used to compact previous idea and extended by adding
verb (lasted, using the non-finite 'ing' form lasting) and
circumstance (403 BC to 221 BC) as a qualifier in a
participant noun group. Relating process (is known as)
used to relate name of period.
• Jointly construct another section.
• In pairs or individually students continue practising moving from notes to texts.
• Share and discuss choices and their impacts.
16
Drawn from Sentence structure – Resource 3: Qin Shi Huang, the first Emperor of China.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS | 29
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
LEVELS 1012 LEAPING TO LEVELS 1314
LEVELS 10–12 LEAPING TO LEVELS 13–14
Learning sequence Language in focus Genres
15. Nominalisation:
encapsulating speech,
thought and key threads
nominalisation:
• to express thinking and saying
• to encapsulate key ideas and threads
• explanations: factorial,
consequential and historical
accounts
• expositions: arguments,
discussions
• evaluative texts including reviews
• issues analyses
15. Nominalisation: encapsulating speech, thought and
key threads
Revise
• Create a shared definition of nominalisation.
• Make a list of suxes with examples, eg: ment – judgement; ivity – activity; ance – maintenance;
tion – narration; ness – eectiveness; cy – eciency.
• List purposes and benefits of nominalisation, eg enables users to:
> name/define complex phenomena or processes, eg logging; filtration; dehydration; evaporation;
photosynthesis
> summarise and compact information
> build information around it through the noun
> use as a sentence opener and shift focus from concrete to abstract, eg:
– I feel happy – My happiness
– Your body doesn’t have enough water – Dehydration occurs if …
> show relationships between things, eg volcano erupted and lava flowed — the eruption resulted in the
flow of lava
> remove human doers: The decision; Deforestation
> as a ‘noun’ it can do things and things can be done to it, eg Dehydration causes problems; Dehydration
can be prevented.
• Locate nominalisations in texts.
• Students nominalise given words in spoken-like sentences and then use them to rewrite the sentences.
Nominalising to express thinking and saying
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Generate a list of nominalised saying and thinking verbs. See Resource 4: Abstract nouns to encapsulate
processes, relationships and concepts.
• Locate examples of words used to indicate speech or thought in texts, eg model texts.
17
17
These are in Cohesive devices – Resource 8: Discussion/argument: Should children play computer games?; Sentence structure –
Resource 4: Model text: PE issues analysis; and Circumstances – Resource 4: An historical account: Australia – whose land?
30 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
• Categorise as verbs (saying or mental processes)
or nouns (nominalisations):
Verb Noun
Saying
cite
talk of
report
recommend
(their) claim
(a) debate
(the) report
recommendation
Thinking
believe (point of) view
• Explore where nouns have been used and the
eects of using a noun rather than a verb.
• Point out where the nominalisation encapsulates
something that is mentioned previously (or previews
what is to come). Ask students to circle or highlight
the nominalisation and the stretch of text being
referred to, connecting them with an arrow.
• Have students find examples and annotate what
is achieved.
Examples of nominalised saying
and commentary
18
Example 1: despite the positive claims of the players
What
author
achieves
as a result
• Links back and summarises
argument 1.
• Pack around it
> describe: positive (which side
of debate)
> qualify whose: of the players
> add preposition: despite.
• Counter with/pit against other
views.
Example 2: Recent claims of an imbalance of
funding between elite athletes and grass roots
sports have sparked vigorous debate regarding
the delegation …
What
author
achieves
as a result
• Encapsulates and previews the
issue.
• Removes humans – who is
claiming and debating?
• Pack around:
> describe: recent; vigorous =
current, wide-interest
> qualify – names topic/issue
> show cause-eect relationship
claims have sparked debate.
• Create cloze activities where students select
an appropriate nominalisation to link back and
encapsulate.
• Model and jointly construct nominalisations and
new sentences:
Verb-based Nominalised
The experts agree that
we must tackle climate
change. Their report
recommends over 160
steps to be taken.
Given the overwhelming
consensus among
the experts, the
government cannot
ignore the reports’
recommendations.
• Discuss the impact of the changes and when
and why the nominalised version would be more
appropriate.
• Students independently construct nominalised
rewrites with accompanying commentary.
Resource 4 also provides examples of nominalised
key threads and describers that are Tier 2 academic
vocabulary. Adapt activities here to build students’
use of these resources.
19
18
Drawn from the model text in Sentence structure – Resource 4: Model text: PE issues analysis.
19
See also Cohesive devices 12 ‘Strategic orientations and text organisation‘ and, within this, ‘Text organisation and ecient
orientation using nominalisation‘.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS | 31
Resource 1: Elements of a noun group
Element
Pointer ➔ Quantifier m
Intensifier !
20
Describer X Classifier q
Thing
KEY NOUN k
Qualifier :
Meaning
with
functional
question
‘points to’ the noun:
answers Which one
or ones?
quantifies the
noun: answers
How many or
how much?
strengthens
or softens
describer: To
what degree is
it like this?
describes the
key noun:
answers What’s
it like?
classifies key
noun answers:
What kind? or
What type?
names the
‘thing’, tells:
Who or what
are we talking
about?
provides
additional
information to
specify which
thing/s, tells:
Which one/s in
particular?
Forms with
examples
• determiners:
> articles: the
forest, a terrible
thing, an animal
> demonstratives:
this narrative,
these legacies,
that chapter,
those words
> possessives: my
first reason, its
entire life, their
way of living
> other words:
each year, no
zoo, some zoos,
every state
• numerals:
three bears,
40 million
tonnes of coal
• inexact
numbers
or amounts:
many children,
the majority
of men, much
of the waste,
20% of
e-waste,
about 50 days
• ordinal
numbers: the
first online
graphic novel,
his last day
• adverbs:
very quiet,
really small,
extremely
angry, utterly
exhausted,
somewhat
surprised,
truly shocked
• adjectives:
dark blue,
deepest blue
• adjectives:
little brown
bear, cute,
young puppy,
expressive
eyes,
hazardous
conditions,
precious
resources
• -ed/en or
-ing words:
framed
images,
a hidden
trapdoor,
a dazzling
display
• adjectives:
solar panel,
vintage car
• nouns:
school desk,
guide dog
• a numeral:
second place
• -ed/en or
-ing words:
boiled potato,
the Stolen
Generation,
recycling
facilities
• noun:
> person:
baby
> place: beach
> object: ball
> idea:
relaxation
• nouns: bread
and butter,
an orange
or apple
• substitution
(one to refer
to noun): the
pink one in
the corner
• prepositional
clause: The
tiny lizard
with blue
stripes on its
tail, the girl
in the car
• embedded
clauses:
Aboriginal
children who
were taken
away, toxins
which are
used in the
construction
of computers,
a report called
‘Bringing
them home’,
a word
beginning
with ‘z’
20
Intensifiers are technically not part of the noun group because they do not add to the key noun.
They add to the describer and are part of an adjectival group within a noun group.
32 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS
Resource 2: Early noun group chart
Pointer
(which one/s?
whose?)
➔
Counter
(how many?
how much?)
m m m
Describer
(what's it like? what size? what age? what colour? what
shape? what texture? what made of?)
X
Classifier
(what kind?
what type?)
q
Thing KEY NOUN
(who or what
are we talking
about?)
k
a, an, the, this, that,
these, those, my,
your, his, her, its,
our, their, mum’s
one, two, second,
some, a few, many,
a lot of, a cup of,
a bowl of, enough
beautiful, big, old, red, round, soft, furry racing, toy, sports
(car); teddy, polar
(bear); teenage,
Asian (girl);
mountain (bike)
dog, car, doll, bear,
sky, house, girl, boy
What’s it like?
4 8
what size?
∞∞∞∞
what colour?
the two cute little brown birds
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS | 33
Resource 3: Noun group chart
Pointer
(which? whose?)
➔
Quantifier
(how many?
how much?)
m
Intensifier
(to what degree?)
!
Describer
(what‘s it like?)
X
Classifier
(what kind?
what type?)
q
Thing KEY NOUN
(who or what are
we talking about?)
k
Qualifier
(which one/s in
particular?)
:
a, an, the, this,
that, these, those,
my, your, our,
Australia’s
many, some, a few,
six, a cup of, a
couple of, two of
those
very, really,
incredibly, quite,
extremely, slightly
beautiful, horrid,
scary, boring, soft,
yellow, dangerous,
sharp
nocturnal, year 5,
industrial, Siamese,
native, male,
female, adult,
baby, teenage
child, dog, building,
sky, forest, fight,
discussion,
reason, solution
with green eyes,
in the corner, who
I met last week,
where we first met
34 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS
Resource 4: Abstract nouns to encapsulate processes,
relationships and concepts
21
Saying processes
(speech)
Mental process
(thought)
Relationships
(cause-eect)
General concepts
(key threads)
account
accusation
admission
announcement
apology
argument
assertion
call for
claim
comment
commentary
criticism
debate
declaration
demand
denial
discussion
explanation
evidence
insistence
outcry
plea
point
question/ing
report
request
response
statement
suggestion
afterthought
analysis
assumption
awareness
belief
concept
consideration
conviction
expectation
idea
notion
opinion
perception
perspective
prediction
theory
thesis
thought
view
viewpoint
benefit
condition
consequence
contribution
eect
factor
impact
influence
outcome
purpose
reason
result
advantage
approach
aspect
breakthrough
component
constraint
development
diculty
disadvantage
element
event
fact
feature
focus
improvement
incident
issue
limitation
problem
process
strategy
system
task
tendency
technique
topic
trait
trend
variable
Examples of describers that can be added to indicate
High value Low value Intensity/modality
strategic
central
critical
crucial
essential
fundamental
important
indispensable
irreversible
key
major
primary
serious
significant
unique
vital
accidental
commonplace
cosmetic
incidental
inconsequential
insignificant
marginal
minor
non-essential
peripheral
secondary
superficial
temporary
trivial
unimportant
unnecessary
direct
indirect
short-term
long-term
widespread
localised
probable
likely
21
Adapted from Derewianka & Jones, 2016:313
The Department for Education requests attribution as:
South Australian Department for Education | APRIL 2021
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP)
TARGETED STRATEGIES TO ACCELERATE SAE PROFICIENCY
EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE
EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE: INTRODUCTION 3
Types of attitude 3
Feelings and emotions 3
Judgements of people 3
Evaluation or appreciation of ‘things’ 3
Varying the intensity and modality 4
Intensity: force and focus 4
Modality: probability, frequency and obligation 4
Analysis of evaluative language 4
LEVELS 1–4 LEAPING TO LEVELS 5–6 5
1. Simple, everyday language to express feelings – happy, sad 6
2. Beyond common, everyday language to express feelings 6
3. Everyday vocabulary to judge characters 7
4. Everyday vocabulary to evaluate 8
LEVELS 5–6 LEAPING TO LEVELS 7–9 9
5. Expressing emotions for mood and characterisation 9
6. Expanded vocabulary to judge characters 10
7. Expanded vocabulary to evaluate with varied intensity 11
Modality to strengthen or soften arguments 12
Evaluation in responses 12
LEVELS 7–9 LEAPING TO LEVELS 10–12 14
8. Evaluative language in media texts 15
Advertising and reviewing 15
Expressing opinions in the media 17
9. More formal, written-like expressions of emotion 17
Emotions in narratives 17
Focus on categories of emotion 18
Focus on more written-like grammatical resources 19
Emotion in a historical recount 20
Varied intensity and objectivity 21
10. Judgement of individual characters and groups 21
11. Varied intensity and modality to modulate claims 23
LEVELS 10–12 LEAPING TO LEVELS 13–14 26
12. Formal and authoritative evaluative language to present varied viewpoints 26
Focus on inferred judgement 27
Focus on nominalisation 27
Varying intensity – formal choices 28
Modality – being authoritative, while showing openness to other views 28
Focus on distanced emotion 29
13. Judgement and evaluation to show significance 29
Focus on judgement 29
Focus on evaluation and intensity 31
2 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE
14. Implying judgement in history 31
15. Evaluative language in issues analyses 33
Focus on implied judgement 33
Varying intensity, including through modality 34
Resource 1: Resources for expressing attitude 35
Resource 2: Resources to vary intensity 36
Resource 3: Modality resources 37
Resource 4: Characters from Charlotte’s Web 38
Resource 5: Analysing evaluative language (Refugee Boy) 39
Resource 6: Varying intensity in an argument 40
Resource 7: Analysing language to vary intensity in an issue analysis 41
Resource 8: Analysing evaluative language in a discussion 42
Resource 9: The impact of women on 19th century Australia 43
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE | 3
EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE: INTRODUCTION
As speakers and writers we draw on evaluative language to express our attitudes as we interact with each other,
with texts, ideas and the world around us. Since evaluative language is used in a wide range of texts across the
curriculum, students need to learn how to use evaluative language and to identify and interpret its use in texts.
There are 2 main aspects of evaluative language to consider in LEAP:
• how feelings, judgements and evaluations are expressed
• the intensity and modality with which they are expressed.
Types of attitude
Positive and negative expressions of attitude can be divided into 3 main types:
• feelings and emotions (our own and those of others, eg characters in narratives)
• judgements of people (our own and others’ behaviour and character traits)
• evaluation or appreciation of ‘things’, eg books, movies, performances, artwork.
The 3 main types can be focused on individually or looked at in combination. Resource 3: Modality resources
provides a collation of the 3 types into one larger framework.
Feelings and emotions
The top section of Resource 1: Resources for expressing attitude provides examples of how feelings can be
grouped into 3 major categories:
• happiness or unhappiness
• security or insecurity
• satisfaction or dissatisfaction.
Various word forms can be used:
• verbs: love, smiling, strode, pleased, wailing, threatened, disappointed
• adjectives: ecstatic, buoyant, safe, secure, pleased, mournful, depressed, scared, petrified, bored
• adverbs: joyfully, confidently, proudly, sadly, nervously, angrily
• nouns: love, stability, contentment, grief, fear, frustration.
As our language develops, we build both our vocabulary and the range of grammatical forms we use to express
emotions. At the spoken-end of the register continuum, we rely more on verbs and adjectives: at the written
end, nominalisations are used.
Judgements of people
The middle section of Resource 1 provides examples of how judgements of people’s behaviour and character
are grouped into 2 broad categories, each with sub-categories:
• personal attributes to be admired or criticised:
> uniqueness, normalcy
> capability, strength, weakness
> dependability, reliability, courage
• ethics and morals to be praised and respected or rebuked and disapproved:
> goodness, fairness, selflessness
> honesty, openness, trustworthiness.
Evaluation or appreciation of ‘things’
Three categories and associated probe questions are used to identify the language of appreciation:
• reaction: Did you like it? Did it grab you?
• composition: Was it well-constructed? Did it hang together well? Was it suciently challenging?
• valuation: Was it worthwhile?
These are demonstrated in the lower section of Resource 1.
4 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE
Varying the intensity and modality
Evaluations can be strengthened or weakened to create graduations of meaning: greater or lesser degrees
of positivity or negativity. We ‘turn the volume up or down’ through the use of:
• intensifiers and other resources that adjust the force or focus of the message
• modality to soften or strengthen arguments and open up to other points of view.
Intensity: force and focus
The volume can be adjusted by choosing core vocabulary that has an inbuilt intensity, eg jogged, ran, raced,
sped, flew; quickly, swiftly, rapidly; pretty, gorgeous, stunning, including metaphors and similes, eg as quick
as a flash, like lightning, movie-star looks, a knock-out. In LEAP Levels, these choices are considered when
assessing vocabulary in Verbs and verb groups, Circumstances or Nouns and noun groups.
In Evaluative language, LEAP Levels focus on the use of additional words to:
• vary force by intensifying or quantifying
• sharpen or soften the focus.
See Resource 2: Resources to vary intensity for a more detailed breakdown of categories and examples.
Modality: probability, frequency and obligation
Modality refers to language that expresses degrees of probability/certainty, frequency/usualness or obligation.
This language is important when persuading an audience to agree or to take action. It can make arguments
sound reasonable and open to discussion and/or strengthen a call to action.
Resource 3 provides a list of resources to express modality, analysed into categories of probability, frequency
and obligation and further broken down according to word form. The forms are listed in the order they are
developed, from most spoken-like at the top to most written-like at the bottom:
• modal auxiliaries, eg may, might, should, must (That might be the one; You must always cover it)
• modal adjuncts (adverbs): probably, certainly, always (She always wins)
• mental and saying processes (verbs): I think, I believe, I suggest; I urged (I urged her to leave)
• modal qualities (adjectives): certain, probable, likely (I am certain; It’s a likely outcome)
• other verbs: permit, oblige, require, necessitate (The current situation requires urgent action)
• nominalisations (nouns): likelihood, possibility, requirement (There is a strong possibility).
Analysis of evaluative language
Unlike other aspects of grammar, the analysis of evaluative language is not precise. Not only are evaluative
meanings often cultural, but they also:
• are expressed through a range of grammatical resources, eg verbs, adjectives, adverbs and nouns
• can be expressed directly (happy), implied (skipped along the path) or evoked (the sun shone brightly and
the birds sang from the lush green treetops)
• connect, accumulate and multiply each other’s meanings across a text.
Interconnectedness of the 3 categories of attitude
1
Judgement: ‘an engaging
speaker’ feeling with respect
to person and behaviour
Evaluation: ‘an engaging
speech’ feeling with respect
to products and processes
Emotion: ‘I was engaged’,
‘that engaged me’ –
my feelings
Therefore, it is unlikely that 2 people will identify exactly the same words and phrases, or that every word and
phrase will be classified in the same way. However, the overall patterns of analysis will be similar. These patterns
can then support inference and interpretation of key messages. They also allow a focus on grammatical tools
used to ‘show’, rather than ‘tell’, or on resources to evaluate in more formal, written-like ways, including
nominalisations and shift from emotion to judgement and evaluation.
1
Martin J, 2000:147, Fig 8.1.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE | 5
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
LEVELS 14 AND LEAPING TO LEVELS 56
LEVELS 1–4
Learning sequence Language in focus Genres
1. Simple everyday language
to express feeling – happy,
sad
• feelings and emotions: emoticons,
facial expression, body language
• descriptive statements
• narratives
LEAPING TO LEVELS 5–6
2. Beyond common,
everyday language to
express feelings
• feelings and emotions: expanding
vocabulary
• narratives
3. Everyday vocabulary
to judge characters
• judgement of people/characters • narratives
• responses
4. Everyday vocabulary
to evaluate
• evaluation of things: describers and
comparatives
• narratives
• descriptive reports
• recounts
Suggested mentor texts
Books (bolding indicates that the sequence is based around this text) Learning sequence
Allen P (2010) Share Said the Rooster, Penguin Australia 1
Bang M (1999) When Sophie Gets Angry – Really, Really Angry…, Scholastic Inc 1
Cornwall G (2017) Jabari Jumps, Candlewick 1
Fox M (2000) Harriet, You’ll Drive Me Wild, Houghton Miin (ideal for exploring
facial expressions and body language) 1
Lang S (2018) Grumpy Monkey, Random House Books for Young Readers 1
Lester A (1987) When Frank was Four, Lothian Children’s Books 1
Lester A (2018) Tricky’s Bad Day, Arm Press 1
Lester A (2014) Noni the Pony Goes to the Beach, Allen & Unwin 1
Laguna S (2002) Too Loud Lily, Scholastic 1
Walker A (2010) I Love Birthdays, Simon & Schuster Books for Young Readers 1
Wild M (2007) Bobbie Dazzler, Harper Collins 1
Wild M & Vivas J (1998) Our Granny, HMH Books for Young Readers 1
Charles F & Terry M (1998) The Selfish Crocodile, Bloomsbury Publishing 3
Blabey A (2014) Pig the Pug, Scholastic 3
Blabey A (2018) Pig the Fibber, Scholastic 3
Rippen S (1996) Fang Fang’s Chinese New Year, Omnibus Books 4
Allen P (2015) The Man with Messy Hair, Penguin 4
Allen P (1994) Belinda, Pun 4
Browne A (1999) Voices in the Park, Corgi Children 4
Browne A (2014) Willy the Wimp, Walker Books 4
Browne A (2005) Into the Forest, Walker Books 4
Cosgrove M (2018) Macca the Alpaca, Koala Books 4
Cosgrove M (2019) Macca’s Makeover, Koala Books 4
Williamson J (1998) Christmas in Australia, Picture Pun 4
A range of simple traditional fairy tales and narratives with superheroes which have
clear ‘good’ and ‘bad’ characters such as Goldilocks, Cinderella, Hansel and Gretel, and
Jack and the Beanstalk, as well as Dreaming stories and fables from a range of cultures. 1, 2, 3
6 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE
1. Simple, everyday language to
express feelings – happy, sad
Levels 1–4 are generally oral stages of language
development. Model and teach that feelings and
emotions can be communicated through:
• words/what people/characters say
• visuals/the actions of people/characters
• facial expressions
• body gestures.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Use images that evoke emotion, eg a broken toy,
friends playing, a party, a stormy sky with lightning,
a kitten, child in front of the class ready to talk or
perform, a child sitting alone with head hung while
others play around them, child climbing across
monkey bars, a ferocious dog.
• Use the thumbs up, thumbs down strategy to
encourage all students to respond to how each
picture makes them feel. Students sort images
into those that make them feel good and those
that don’t.
• Using the Think, Pair, Share strategy, students tell/
show a partner how they feel when they see a
picture (in L1 and/or in English).
• Present alternative feeling words on flashcards,
such as scared and angry, together with emoticons.
Say each feeling word aloud, eg happy, modelling
pronunciation. Students repeat.
• Extend by creating simple sentences, eg I feel happy,
using the sensing verb ‘feel’.
Additional multimodal resources
Joe Scores A Goal!
2
, Happy to Be Me!
3
and the online
animation Adventures are the pits!
4
• Play ‘feelings’ games by using a dice with 6 feelings,
eg good, bad, happy, sad, scared, angry. Students
take turns to roll the dice. Model how to respond
depending on student ability. This could be simply
stating the feeling ‘happy’ and a word to express
a happy activity such as ‘playing’ or a simple
sentence such as, ‘Soccer makes me happy’.
• Model drawing pictures that make you feel happy,
sad, excited and scared. Students then create their
own pictures and share orally.
• Explain that students will be learning to use feeling
words to describe how other people feel.
• Repeat the activity, using photographs of familiar
people, such as teachers or buddy class members,
who are showing specific feelings through their
facial expressions and/or body language, eg happy,
sad, scared, angry.
• Explore in shared texts, using questioning to
identify, model and practise everyday vocabulary
to describe feelings, eg How is Little Red Riding
Hood feeling? Why is she feeling ?
How can we tell?
2. Beyond common, everyday
language to express feelings
5
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Read or view a simple fairy tale or narrative suitable
for the age level of the students, such as the
animation of Little Red Riding Hood.
6
• Display a range of visuals/screenshots where the
characters are experiencing dierent emotions.
• View Little Red Riding Hood again, pausing
to discuss what is happening and identify the
character/s’ feelings, eg watch the beginning
with Little Red Riding Hood walking through
town wearing her red cloak. Pause the animation,
students turn and talk with a partner, discussing
words to describe how Little Red Riding Hood
was feeling (in L1 and/or English). Responses may
include happy or good. Introduce other words like
safe, proud and welcomed (people saying hello).
• Record words on cards for students to place next
to the matching visual on display. Repeat this
process for key parts of the story, eg Little Red
Riding Hood:
> walking around town wearing her red cloak
> picking pretty flowers in the forest
> sees a shadow, then the wolf
> sees ‘Grandma’ in bed and thinks something
is wrong
> with Grandma and the woodsman watching
the wolf run away.
2
Akmakjian J & Burton H (2020) Joe Scores A Goal!, Unite for Literacy, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/JoeGoal (accessed
November 2020).
3
Hartman H (2018) Happy to Be Me! Unite for Literacy, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/HappyMe (accessed November 2020).
4
‘Adventures are the pits!’, The Literacy Shed, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/AdventuresPits (accessed November 2020).
5
See also Verbs and verb groups 3 ‘Mental processes to express likes and dislikes’.
6
Gigglebox (2019) ‘Little Red Riding Hood’, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/LittleRRH (accessed October 2020).
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE | 7
• For each visual, ask: ‘How do we know that
feels ?’ Discuss facial
expressions, body language, actions or dialogue.
• Students draw part of the story when Little Red
Riding Hood was feeling good. Label with feeling/s
or write about this scene. Provide simple sentence
starters such as, ‘Little Red Riding Hood felt … ’.
Students orally explain why the character felt
like this.
• Create a word bank of feelings throughout the
learning, drawn from the students and from the
narratives shared. Include synonyms to expand
vocabulary for feelings, eg scared: frightened,
afraid.
3. Everyday vocabulary to judge
characters
Judgements are expressed through the use of:
• how a character is described (noun groups)
• what the character does (action verbs)
• how they speak (saying processes)
• how they act (circumstances expressing details
of manner/adverbs).
By posing questions about the actions of characters
such as, ‘Why is that girl grabbing that toy?’, students
can look at an author’s choice of verb and make
inferences about a character’s feelings or personality
traits.
Additional multimodal resources
In addition to listed mentor texts, consider also the
animation Tiddalick The Frog
7
and movies, such as
Frozen and The Lion King with obvious ‘good’ and
‘bad’ characters.
Engage
• Display pictures of familiar characters who are
portrayed as ‘good’, eg Cinderella, Spiderman.
Students ‘turn and talk’, discussing what is ‘good’
about the characters. Share and create a poster
of words to describe ‘good’ or positive character
traits.
• Repeat the process for characters who appear as
‘bad’, eg Lex Luther in Superman, the evil step-
mother and sisters in Cinderella.
• Repeat process, discussing, sharing and recording
‘bad’ traits.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• View the online narrative The Selfish Crocodile.
8
• Discuss how the crocodile acted towards the
other animals. Ask, ‘Is he a good character or a bad
character?’ Ask if he changed at all during the story.
• Students listen to the story again, focusing on
words the author uses to describe the crocodile,
eg selfish. Add to negative chart.
• Students talk with their partner and record other
adjectives to describe the crocodile. Share with the
class, continuing to record adjectives on the class
chart. Extend vocabulary with uncommon choices,
saying each word and students repeating.
• Repeat this process for the hero of the story, the
little mouse. Add adjectives to the positive chart.
• Ask: ‘Which animal was selfish?’ Guide them to
respond using a complete sentence such as, ‘The
crocodile was selfish.’ Then model how to include
a reason in the sentence using the conjunction
because, eg ‘The crocodile was selfish because
he would not let the other animals use the river.’
• Provide a question starter and response scaold
on a card for students to refer:
Question: Which animal was ?
Answer: The was
because
• In pairs, students take turns selecting dierent
words from the charts to ask their partner the
question.
• Write the chart words on cards. Students sort
into positive and negative adjectives and match
describing words to each of the characters. Share
as a class.
• Use some of these adjectives to write sentences
about each of the main characters. Scaold
students to use the conjunctions because, when
and so to oer reasons or evidence for their
descriptions, for example:
> The crocodile was really selfish because he
didn’t want any other animals to use the river.
> The crocodile was greedy so he scared the
animals away from the river.
> The crocodile was when .
• Repeat for the little mouse.
• Encourage students to use intensifiers (so, really,
very) to increase the strength of the descriptions, eg
The crocodile was really nasty when he shouted at
the animals. The little mouse was very courageous
when he walked into the mouth of crocodile.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
7
Red Pixels Animation (2011) ‘Tiddalick The Frog’, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Tiddalick (accessed November 2020)
8
Bedtime stories with Will (2017) ‘The Selfish Crocodile by Faustin Charles’, available at
http://TLinSA.2.vu/SelfishCrocodile (accessed November 2020)
8 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
4. Everyday vocabulary
to evaluate
Engage
• Read books or watch short videos about cultural
celebrations, such as Birthday Party;
9
or Fang
Fang’s Chinese New Year (also online
10
); Christmas
in Australia; What is Diwali?
11
and Eid al-Adha.
12
Discuss the commonalities, eg special food,
clothes, families getting together and fireworks.
• Students talk about celebrations recognised and
celebrated by their families. Students illustrate and/
or list these under the title ‘What we celebrate in
my family’.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Read Fang Fang’s Chinese New Year.
• As a class, identify the elements of the celebration,
such as the special food, family meal, firecrackers
and the Dragon Dance.
• Display a picture of each element. Ask: ‘Would
you like this celebration?’ Students turn and talk,
describing each element. Share responses with the
class, recording words on flashcards, and adding
to a chart:
• fun
• yummy
• exciting
• special
• pretty
• bad
• yuck
• too loud
• boring
• scary
• Responses may include adjectives like yummy,
good, colourful and dierent. Introduce synonyms
for a word like ‘yummy’, eg tasty, delicious.
Consider a discussion about things that are dierent,
and how they can be good or bad. For example, Lisa
likes the dierent things at the Chinese New Year
celebration, whereas Fang Fang feels embarrassed
by them.
• Sort flashcards together as a class, identifying
the positive or negative words that describe each
element of the celebration. With one card per
student, they take turns to say the word aloud,
with support as needed, and to place it in the
positive or negative group.
• Students choose 3 words to describe what Fang
Fang thought her friend Lisa would think about
the food, the firecrackers and the Dragon Dance,
eg boring, silly or yucky. Then choose 3 words
that Lisa would use after the celebration, eg fun,
exciting and colourful.
• Revise the class list of family celebrations. Students
choose their favourite celebration to make a page
for a class book.
• Using the title ‘(Student’s name) favourite
celebration’, students create an illustration of the
celebration on the top half of the page. Students
include who is there, what happens, and special
items, eg food or clothes. Using the chart of words
to evaluate, they choose and record adjectives
around their picture to describe what they think
of their favourite celebration.
• Students use words they have recorded to write
sentences below their picture. Provide sentence
starters such as:
> My favourite celebration is …
> We celebrate it on …
> We eat …
> We celebrate by …
> My favourite part is …
> I also like …
Students can evaluate favourite things, eg pets as well
as experiences such as excursions, special school
activities, such as sports day and performances.
• Use texts such as Our Granny, We Love Soccer
or Playground Games and ask students to discuss:
The funniest/best/most surprising part was when
.
• Expand and experiment with the use of comparatives
and superlatives to express opinions when
comparing texts.
9
Bremer B (2013) Birthday Party, Unite for Literacy, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/BirthdayParty (accessed November 2020)
10
Rippon S (nd) Fang Fang’s Chinese New Year, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/FFChineseNewYear (accessed November 2020)
11
CBeebies Songs (2016) ‘What is Diwali?’, The Let’s Go Club, BBC Studios, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Diwali (accessed
November 2020)
12
CBeebies Songs (2016) ‘Eid al-Adha’, The Let’s Go Club, BBC Studios, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Eid (accessed
November 2020)
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE | 9
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
LEVELS 56 LEAPING TO LEVELS 79
LEVELS 5–6 LEAPING TO LEVELS 7–9
Learning sequence Language in focus Genres
5. Expressing emotions for
mood and characterisation
• feelings and emotions: choosing
synonyms for precision and inferring
or showing rather than telling
• varying the intensity
• narratives
• responses
6. Expanded vocabulary to
judge characters
• judgement of people – characters • narratives
• responses
7. Expanded vocabulary
to evaluate with varied
intensity
• evaluation of things: describers and
comparatives
• varying the intensity
• modality to strengthen or soften
• expositions: arguments
• responses including reviews
Suggested mentor text
Book (bolding indicates that the sequence is based around this text) Learning sequence
For younger students
Kobald I & Blackwood F (2014) My Two Blankets, Hardie Grant
13
5
Willis J & Ross T (2006) Misery Moo, Andersen Press 5
Laguna S (2002) Too Loud Lily, Scholastic Inc 5
Bang M (1999) When Sophie Gets Angry – Really, Really Angry…, Scholastic Inc 5
Cornwall G (2017) Jabari Jumps, Candlewick 5
Blabey A (2014) Pig the Pug, Scholastic 5
Miller D (2005) Refugees, Lothian Children’s Books 5
White EB (1952) Charlotte’s Web, Penguin 6
For older students
Parker D & Ottley M (2016) Parachute, William B Eerdmans Publishing Co
14
5
Ramage J & Simmonds B (2016) Dog Lost, Windy Hollow Books 5
Wild M (2000) Fox, Allen & Unwin
15
5
5. Expressing emotions for mood and characterisation
Engage
• Students share experiences of moving to a new place with a partner. Provide guiding questions from
Reading Australia related to My Two Blankets, eg:
> What was new or dierent?
> How did this make you feel?
> What did you do if you couldn’t speak English/the language spoken in this new place?
> Did you have anything that made you feel at home or comfortable?
> How did you make your first friends?
> What helped you to settle in and feel welcome?
• Explain they will be learning how writers carefully choose words to describe the feelings of characters.
13
See unit of work aimed at year 2 students from Reading Australia, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/ra2Blankets (accessed November 2020).
14
See accompanying unit in Rossbridge & Rushton, 2015:103.
15
See accompanying unit of work aimed at Yr 9 students from Reading Australia, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/raFox (accessed
November 2020); and Callow J (2011) ‘When image and text meet – teaching with visual and multimodal texts’, PETAA,
pp.4–5, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Callow2011 (accessed November 2020).
10 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Explicitly teach: I do – we do – you do
• Read My Two Blankets. Using the same question
prompts, pairs talk about the character’s feelings.
Share with class.
• In groups, students examine cards containing
phrases and sentences from the story:
It made me feel safe. The people were
strange.
I hid under my old
blanket.
We came to this
country to be safe.
The waterfall was cold. I wrapped myself in a
blanket.
One day in the park a
girl smiled at me.
a waterfall of strange
sounds
My new words started
to feel warm and soft.
the cold and lonely
waterfall
It made me feel alone. Her words were strange.
The food was strange. I felt warm
inside.
We
laughed.
• Taking turns to read a card aloud, groups identify
if the character was feeling a positive or negative
emotion and sort onto a chart.
Positive Negative
What did
Cartwheel
feel?
We laughed. happy
a waterfall
of strange
sounds
confused
• Students highlight the word or words on each card
that are positive or negative. (Some examples, such
as the waterfall simile, may need to be explained
explicitly.)
• Extend further by having groups match each phrase
or sentence with an emotional category such as
happy and sad, safe and secure, unsafe or insecure,
satisfied, dissatisfied, adding these to the chart.
• Look at visuals from books where characters
experience a range of feelings and emotions.
Show students a sentence that uses simple,
common vocabulary to express feelings. Identify
and highlight the feeling and then model how to
rewrite the sentence using a more precise choice.
• Repeat this several times together before students
experiment.
• Look at the page towards the end of the book
where readers see the 2 girls sharing the umbrella.
She was happy to have a friend.
She was delighted to have a friend.
• Look at the page in the first half of the book where
readers first see Cartwheel wrapped in her soft,
warm blanket.
Her blanket was her safe place.
Her blanket was like a cocoon.
• In pairs, students rewrite sentences. Share and
discuss responses.
• Extend by changing direct statements to inferred
ones, eg:
Cartwheel was happy.
She couldn’t stop
smiling (the verb smiling infers happiness without
directly stating it).
6. Expanded vocabulary
to judge characters
Engage
Read Charlotte’s Web as a class. Tell students that they
will be looking at some of the characters and author’s
choice of words to describe them and how they
behave. Explain that authors choose particular words
to make us like some characters and dislike others.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Students share their feelings about the character
Fern. Ask: ‘Do you like or dislike her?’ and ‘Why
or why not?’ Students ‘turn and talk’ before sharing
with the class.
• Create a class chart and, in the first column, display
a selection of phrases and sentences from the book
about Fern. Together identify and highlight any
words that make us like or dislike her.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE | 11
• Students share what they think these examples tell
readers about Fern’s character traits. Record these
in the second column. Support students to identify
processes ‘done by’ Fern, eg when she commanded
her brother to leave Charlotte alone. Explore what
the author is telling us about Fern through her
actions and words as in chart below.
16
Charlotte’s Web
Examples from the book What does this tell
us about Fern?
Tears
ran down her cheek
and she
took hold of the
axe
and
tried to pull it out
of her father’s hand. (p.8)
She is caring and
is not afraid to do
something/take
action (brave, sense
of fairness).
Fern
came, almost every
day
, to visit him.
Here she
sat quietly
…
All the animals
trusted
her, she was
so quiet
and
friendly
. (p.19)
She is reliable,
quiet, trustworthy
and friendly. She
loves animals.
‘Leave it alone!’
commanded Fern.
‘You stop it Avery!’
cried
Fern. (p.73) (to her brother
who was planning to
capture Charlotte)
Fair, not scared to
stand up for what
she thinks is right.
• Begin a class chart of positive and negative words
used to describe characters.
• Students work in groups to look at characters
from the book, drawing on extracts provided in
Resource 4: Characters from Charlotte’s Web
to determine what the author is telling us about
them. Groups highlight words or phrases the
author used to describe the character and their
behaviour. Underneath each example, they record
words to describe the character trait.
• Groups share findings with the whole class and
add positive and negative words to the class chart
of character traits. Share and discuss synonyms for
the words oered, eg Wilbur is little, weak, needs
protecting – he is innocent/naïve/vulnerable.
• Students draw upon groups’ analyses to write short
descriptions of each character. Model an example
based on Fern, eg:
The character, Fern, is a young girl who is liked by
most readers. She is caring and has a strong sense
of fairness, which she shows when she tries to
stop her father killing the small pig. She loves all
the animals in the barn and shows this by being
quiet and gentle with them and helping out with
their feeding.
• Provide sentence frames to support students
create their own descriptions:
> is a character who is .
> She/he/it is when .
> She/he/it is also and shows this by
.
7. Expanded vocabulary to
evaluate with varied intensity
Engage
• Tell students that they will be looking at the
topic of plastic and its use in our world. They will
learn how authors use certain words to express
a positive opinion or a negative opinion about a
thing, like plastic, or a bigger topic, like pollution.
• Brainstorm items made of plastic. Divide their list
into ‘single use’ and ‘long-term use’ items and
discuss the benefits/advantages (positives) of
plastic use as well as the disadvantages (negatives).
• Read and view other resources to build knowledge
and understanding of the topic or context, eg Skip
the Plastic!
17
, Rookie Report: Molly’s Straw No More
Campaign
18
and McDonald’s Ditches Plastic
19
(first
1’29”).
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Read model text in Circumstances Resource 3:
Plastic straws must be banned!
• Display 2 sentences from the text:
> Plastic straws are just so harmful to our world.
> Bamboo and metal straws are great choices.
• Students identify which is a positive statement
and which is negative, highlighting the words that
show this:
> Plastic straws are
just so harmful to our world.
> Bamboo and metal straws are
great choices
.
16
See also Verbs and verb groups 9 ‘Process types and precise choices for shades of meaning’.
17
Mathur M & Batt L (2017) Skip the Plastic!, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/SkipPlastic (accessed November 2020)
18
Behind the News (2018) ‘Rookie Report: Molly’s Straw No More Campaign’, ABC, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/BTNnoStraws
(accessed November 2020)
19
Behind the News (2020) ‘BTN Newsbreak 2/3/2020’, ABC, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/BTN2March2020
(accessed November 2020)
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
12 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE
• In pairs, half the class use the first sentence and
the other half the second. They brainstorm and
refer to resources, like a dictionary or thesaurus,
to generate replacements for either
just so harmful
or
great choices
. Options may include:
>
just so harmful
– so bad, so damaging, so
destructive, so hurtful
>
great choices
– excellent choices, good choices,
the best choices, best option.
• Pairs share orally with the class. Record synonyms.
• Discuss changes in meaning/eect and which
words would be most eective for this particular
topic. Consider the intended audience and mode
(written or oral).
• Record suitable positive and negative choices on
a chart for reference during independent writing.
• Point out the use of the intensifiers just and so (just
so harmful) model and jointly construct variations
such as really, very, much, extremely and incredibly,
discussing the graduation of these (see Resource 2).
• Ask: ‘What is the eect of adding ‘just’? What is lost
or what changes, if we remove it?’ (Elicit responses
such as, it works to ‘underline, stress, highlight
how harmful they are’.)
• Students rewrite the 2 sentences independently
using the options, then discuss as a class which
would be most suitable for an argument if spoken,
if written, if the intended audience is primary aged
students or if the audience is a politician, eg:
> Plastic straws are
so damaging
to our world.
> Plastic straws are
incredibly damaging
to our
world.
> Plastic straws are
very hurtful to our world.
• Repeat for other sentences in text, eg:
> They blow around our schools making them
look
messy.
> They make our community look
untidy/uncared
for/horrible/disgusting
.
Modality to strengthen or soften
arguments
20
Engage
• Reread model text in Circumstances Resource 3:
Plastic straws must be banned!
• Students identify the strong/est word/s in the title.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Discuss must (modal auxiliary verb) to strengthen
the action ‘be banned’.
• Replace with alternatives: students identify if the
sentence is made stronger or weaker, eg could
(be banned), should (be banned), may (be banned),
needs to (be banned).
• Show and explain examples of modality which can
soften or strengthen an opinion (see Resource 3).
• Groups sort sentences containing a modal verb
to indicate their intensity (lowest to highest).
• Discuss dierent choices (their eects and in which
contexts they would be more or less appropriate).
• Pairs find and highlight other examples of modal
verbs in the text. They discuss and identify whether
examples indicate high modality (strengthens),
medium modality or low modality (softens), eg
must, need to, can, may, do not.
• Students rewrite sentences from the text to weaken
or strengthen, discussing eect and suitability for
this context:
> There are other types of straws we can use.
There are other types of straws we might use.
There are other types of straws we could use.
There are other types of straws we should use.
Evaluation in responses
Evaluation, emotion and judgements
While the focus in the sequence is on evaluative
language, responses and reviews of literature
(products or performance) also often express:
• feelings of the:
> reviewer/responder: loved, sad
> characters: sad
• judgements of:
> characters: determined, passion
> the producer/s of the text (eg writer, illustrator,
actor): cleverly.
Engage
• Consider the purpose of the review genre with
students.
• Brainstorm what ‘things’ can be reviewed, eg movies,
games, books, performances, products, restaurants.
• Ask the students if they read reviews for any items,
eg PlayStation games.
20
See the introduction to Verbs and verb groups for further elaboration on the use of modals.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE | 13
• Explain they will be learning how to compose
a book review and the language needed to do
so successfully.
• Students read or view a range of book reviews aimed
at students their age, identifying and discussing
common features. Share and discuss. For example,
they may include:
> opinion of the person reviewing, including if they
like it or not
> a summary of the plot
> parts the reviewer especially liked or didn’t like,
eg illustrations, plot, words used, style of writing,
character development.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Display Resource 1, focusing on the lower section
‘Evaluating things’. Explain that when a person reviews
something like a book, a movie, a computer game
or a performance, they consider 3 areas and ask
themselves associated questions, eg:
> Reaction: Did I like it? Did it grab me? What did
I think and feel?
> Composition: Did it have all the parts/elements/
features it needed? Were the parts balanced and
did they work well together? Was it too hard or
too easy to follow?
> Valuation: Did I, or would others find it beneficial
or worthwhile?
• Drawing on the examples of vocabulary associated
with evaluating things in Resource 1, students
identify which might be appropriate when reviewing
a particular thing, eg a book, computer game.
• Display sentences from the left-hand column of
the table below, but without purple highlighting.
Model/jointly highlight words that describe
(evaluate) the book in a positive or negative way.
Add highlighted words to the displayed class chart.
Evaluation Evidence or elaboration
This is a
brilliant
story
as the author cleverly takes
you into another world
and keeps you interested
the whole time.
I loved the
detail
in this book
especially the way the
characters were described.
You felt sad with them and
really cared about them.
The writing
was
incredibly
complicated
and
hard to follow
so I couldn’t understand
the story.
Evaluation Evidence or elaboration
The
vivid
and
intricate
illustrations
make the settings
come alive for the
reader
keeping them fascinated
in the character’s journey.
The ending
was
extremely
unsurprising
and
disappointing
because it followed the
same pattern as the
previous book in the
series.
This is an
inspirational
book
which makes you feel
determined to take action
just like the main character
did with such passion.
• Point out and discuss the use of intensifiers:
incredibly and extremely.
• Provide a selection of book reviews aimed at their
age group.
• Groups identify other examples of evaluative
language to add to class chart.
• Discuss how evaluations are supported with
evidence. Create cards containing evidence or
elaboration and have students match evaluations
with the corresponding evidence or elaboration
as above. (There are multiple options for some
of the evaluations in the table above.)
• Using a class text, model and jointly construct
examples of sentences to evaluate various aspects
of the book, including evidence or elaboration.
• Include the use of intensifiers (see Resource 2)
in examples jointly constructed:
> This book takes the reader on a
thrilling
journey
as you are
totally
surprised on every page.
> Because the author uses
many really dicult
words, the book is
too complicated.
• Students construct their own evaluative comments
with evidence or elaboration.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
14 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
LEVELS 79 LEAPING TO LEVELS 1012
LEVELS 7–9 LEAPING TO LEVELS 10–12
Learning sequence Language in focus Genres
8. Evaluative language in
media texts
• combining the threads to persuade
• feelings and emotions
• judgements and evaluations
• varying intensity and modality
• advertisements
• travel brochures
• reviews
• letters to the editor
• editorials
9. More formal, written-like
expressions of emotion
• feelings and emotions – nominalisations • narratives
• historical accounts
10. Judgement of individual
characters and groups
• judgements of people • narratives
• biographies
• media texts
11. Varied intensity and
modality to modulate claims
• varying the intensity
• modality
• expositions: arguments,
discussions
• investigation reports
• reviews
Suggested mentor texts
Books (bolding indicates that the sequence is based around this text) Learning sequence
Vass C & Leer D (2018) Sorry Day, NLA Publishing
21
9
White B & Hamilton A (2013) ‘Stolen Generations’
22
9
Pilkington Garimara D (1996) Follow the Rabbit-Proof Fence,
University of Queensland Press
23
9, 10
French J (1999) Hitler’s daughter, Harper Collins 10
Poole J & Barrett A (2020) Anne Frank, Red Fox 10
Zephaniah B (2001) Refugee Boy, Bloomsbury Publishing 10
Combining threads of evaluative language
While the various threads of evaluative language can be focused on separately, at this level, it is also useful
to explore how they work in combination across a text. This has 2 benefits as it develops understandings of:
• how the various choices combine to build meaning across a text
• patterns of evaluative language at the more written, academic and abstract end of the register continuum.
21
Show also the reading of Sorry Day by Trevor Jamieson (Story Box Library, 2019), available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/SorryDay
(accessed November 2020).
22
In Composing Written Texts across the Australian Curriculum F–6, Catholic Education South Australia, pp.148–152.
23
See also the movie: Noyce P et al (2003) Rabbit-Proof Fence, [Sydney, New South Wales], Australian Film Finance Corp.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE | 15
8. Evaluative language in media texts
Advertising and reviewing
Revise
Students share what they know about evaluative language. Draw out key points such as:
• paints a positive or negative view
• can vary the strength (including through modality)
• uses various grammatical elements: verbs, adjectives, adverbs, nouns
• includes ways to express feelings, judgements about people’s behaviour or character, and evaluation of things.
Engage
• Discuss evaluative language in media texts: Would it be expected? Where and why?
• Display an advertising pamphlet, eg a travel brochure or review of an experience as provided below.
• Jointly highlight any ‘positive’ or ‘negative’ language and any modality used in the opening sentence/paragraph.
• In pairs, students complete the remainder of the text and share.
I love cooking so I was thrilled to be asked to attend a very important culinary experience, where a well-known
chef demonstrated amazing cooking skills.
All the attendees were so excited and you could see their mouths watering in expectation of the delights we
would be shown. The smells in that beautiful kitchen were sublime and we couldn’t believe that the time went so
quickly. We were totally absorbed as we watched an array of intricate temptations skilfully created before us.
At last it was time to try the tasty morsels and, while we waited our turn, it was hard to be patient. The sounds of
people enjoying the samples were soon filling the kitchen, with lip-smacking ‘oohs’ and ‘aahs’ from everyone.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
Jointly categorise evaluative language from the extract above into the following analysis framework.
24
Categories and probe questions Examples (with intensifiers)
Feelings + feels good - feels bad
Does it convey happiness or
unhappiness?
love, thrilled, delights, enjoying
Does it convey security or
insecurity?
Does it convey satisfaction/
dissatisfaction?
so excited, mouths watering, in
expectation, totally absorbed
at last, hard to be patient
Judgement + admire/praise - criticise/rebuke
Are they
competent?
Are they unusual
in any way?
well-known
amazing skills, skilfully
Are they
capable?
Are they
dependable?
Are they ethical? Are they good/
bad?
Are they honest/
dishonest?
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
24
Analysis framework adapted from Humphrey, Droga & Feez, 2012:102.
16 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE
Evaluation/appreciation + positive - negative
Reaction How do people
react to it?
sublime, filled the kitchen with,
lip-smacking ‘oohs’ and ‘aahs’
Composition Is it well
constructed?
beautiful, so quickly, an array
of intricate temptations skilfully
created, tasty morsels
Valuation Is it worthwhile/
significant?
very important
Modality continuum
high low
Probability How certain is it? couldn’t believe
Frequency How often or
usual is it?
everyone
Obligation How obligated
are we/they?
asked
Using the completed framework, discuss the patterns of resources and author’s choices: What was their intended
eect on the reader? Who are they appealing to and how? How does the modality contribute to the overall
positive evaluation?
Analysis and discussion guides
Because of the interconnected nature of evaluative language resources, some words and expressions can be
classified in more than one way: there is no right or wrong in such cases. For example, the reaction sub-category
of evaluation overlaps with feelings/emotions and many examples could be classified as both. Using the probe
questions can help categorise words according their main purpose/function in the text. For example, ‘hard
to be patient’ is seen as implying the feeling of ‘dissatisfaction/wanting something one cannot yet have’ and
categorised as feeling rather than a judgement of character: impatient people.
While some evaluations are negative, at least on the surface, in conjunction with other choices they help build
positive evaluation of the experience.
Modality is usually considered in terms of whether it is high, medium or low in its strength, rather than whether
it is positive or negative. The eect of the choices in terms of painting a positive or negative picture can still
be discussed.
• In small groups, students replace all the positive evaluative words/phrases with negatives.
• Share reworked version and discuss the eects.
• Use the positive and negative language identified to create a digital resource of evaluative language and have
students add examples to it over the course of a unit/semester or year.
• In pairs, students create their own promotional texts using positive language, drawing on the bank of evaluative
language as a scaold. For example, promoting the school camp to younger students or writing an
advertisement for a ‘miracle’ product, eg face cream, shampoo.
• Students highlight the evaluative language they chose and develop a ‘writer’s statement’, explaining their choices
and their intended eect in light of their specific purpose and audience.
• Students swap their text with another pair, who change all the positive evaluative language into negative. Share
responses and the eects of the changes. Discuss who might write such a texts, for what purposes, and where
such texts might be found.
• Model/jointly change the language to neutral and discuss eects and where/why such choices would be made.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE | 17
Expressing opinions in the media
25
Engage
• Find suitable media texts providing opinions about
an issue of national or international importance.
• Read one as a class and build understandings of the
content and core vocabulary. Gather statements
that present varied views (eg Verbs and verb groups
Resource 7: Statements for and against: logging).
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Identify evaluative language and categorise as
positive or negative initially and then into a more
detailed analysis framework.
For an example framework, see Resource 7: Analysing
language to vary intensity in an issue analysis.
Depending on your chosen texts and your focus, you
may not need all the elements and so can adapt the
framework to suit. For example, if texts have taken a
more academic, formal and distanced approach to
the topic, you may not need the emotion section.
• Discuss patterns of resources and author choices
and the intended eect: Who are they appealing
to and how?
• Allocate other media texts covering the same issue
to groups: students use the same steps to prepare
a presentation of their analysis and interpretation
and share their analyses as a class resource.
• Students write their own opinion pieces on the
issue, applying evaluative language for eect on
a particular audience in a formal ‘written’ register.
Extend the learning
If the issue involves dierent stakeholders, use the
initial model text to create a table with ‘stakeholders’
and associated positive and negative evaluative
language.
Stakeholders + positive words - negative words
Loggers provide jobs destroying
heritage, money
grabbers
Farmers friendly, just
trying to survive
lacking education/
world knowledge
Indigenous
people
proud,
knowledgeable,
sustainable
practices
9. More formal, written-like
expressions of emotion
Mentor texts
• The picture book Sorry Day contains 2 parallel
narratives and a historical recount as an endnote.
• Sorry Day on YouTube is read by actor Trevor
Jamieson and includes an introduction and
afterword from former Prime Minister, Kevin Rudd.
Sensitivity to trauma experiences
The topic of Stolen Generations and the content of
texts used here are complex and sensitive. They may
evoke painful memories and resurface past traumas,
particularly for students who have family members
who are part of the Stolen Generations; have a lived
refugee experience; and/or have experienced the
trauma of being separated from family members.
Emotions in narratives
Engage
• Show the cover of the picture book Sorry Day.
Ask students what they know about Sorry Day.
Draw out:
> it is about saying sorry for the treatment of
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians,
particularly, for the Stolen Generations
> Prime Minister Rudd made an apology speech
to the nation in 2008.
• Show the first 4 pictures and ask what students
notice as you turn from one page to another.
• In pairs, students share what they noticed. As a
whole group, discuss the picture changes:
> from colour to sepia
> from close ups to distant.
• As you show more pages, students in pairs reflect
on why the illustrator would make these choices
and share their thinking.
• Explain that this book has 2 parallel stories: one
from 2008 on the day that Prime Minister Rudd
made his apology speech, and the other from the
past, when children were being taken away from
their families.
• Discuss whether their initial thinking about why the
illustrator changed styles of pictures was on the
right track: the choice of colour and close-up for
recent context and sepia and more distant views
for historical context.
• Read the foreword before reading the complete
book or viewing a reading of Sorry Day on YouTube.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
25
See also Verbs and verb groups 16 ‘Saying and mental processes to incorporate other viewpoints’.
18 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Explain that you will explore the language choices
the author has made to convey emotions in the
2 stories.
• Display a feeling graph on which they can plot
emotions depicted.
• Show the picture accompanying the first page of
story 1 and ask students to name the emotion/s
depicted: happy, excited, joyful.
• Students read accompanying text and find words/
phrases that convey emotion. Discuss whether
they confirm and reinforce the feelings in the
picture.
• Model plotting this on the graph and adding key
words: excited – hum of excitement; joyous –
heart danced with delight, using a bright colour
to match that used in story 1.
• Repeat for first page of story 2, naming the
emotion/s depicted, noting that they are not
as apparent here: happy, playful, free, content.
• Read accompanying text and find words/phrases
that convey emotion. Discuss whether they
confirm and reinforce the feelings in the picture.
• Jointly plot on the feeling graph and add key words:
content – sat around the fire, smell of breakfast
flooded the camp; happy, playful, free – running
in the morning sun, children kicked up dust, using
brown to match the sepia colour used in story 2.
• Jointly deconstruct and plot the next 2 pages,
focusing on the language rather than the images
to find emotions:
> Story 1:
– Maggie: happy – playing hide-and-seek
– Crowd: engaged/expectant – hushed, every
eye locked on screen
– Mother: love – leaned down, expectant –
Shhh! Listen.
> Story 2:
– Children: happy – playing, giggled
– Mother/adult: terrified, worried – terrifying
holler, Hush, they’re coming, HIDE!
Varying intensity
Students can also identify where and how attitudes
have been intensified using:
• intensifiers: very special day
• measures: every eye, no-one
• repetition: Hide. HIDE!
• repetition with contrast: long ago and not so
long ago
• punctuation – exclamation marks and
capitalisation: HIDE!, THUD!
• Assign groups one of the next 8 pages to analyse.
• Groups that analysed a page from story 1 share
their analysis in order of characters’ appearance.
Groups who analysed a page from story 2 share
similarly.
Focus on categories of emotion
• Display and introduce/revise the categories of
emotion, focusing on the ‘Expressing feelings/
emotions’ section of Resource 1.
• Model/jointly take words and phrases that were
added to the feeling graph as evidence. Create
a table and categorise them according to +/-
happiness, +/- security and +/- satisfaction as
below. Other examples could be added.
Categories of emotion: Sorry Day
Emotions
2008 Sorry Day story Parallel story from the past
Positive Negative Positive Negative
Happiness/
unhappiness
a hum of excitement;
heart danced with
delight; hope
wiped her tears;
say sorry
running in the
morning sun;
racing each
other to the
creek; giggled
leaving behind only billowing
dust
Security/
insecurity
a tender hand touched
Maggie’s shoulder;
‘Mummy!’ she gasped,
‘I thought you were
gone!’; her mother
kissed her softly
Losing the grip
of her mother’s
hand; trapped in
a sea of legs
crawled frantically;
hot tears ran
down her cheeks
a terrifying holler; ‘Hush children.
They’re coming! Hide. HIDE!’;
Hiding … lay silent. Still.; trembled;
Screams echoed across the
land; scrambled to escape; the
land wailed; children herded one
by one onto the back of a truck;
Sped o
Satisfaction/
dissatisfaction
the crowd hushed;
every eye was locked
on the screen; no
one stirred; crowd
roared with applause
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE | 19
• Students draw on categorisation of emotions in
the text to discuss the key messages:
> both stories begin with children happy and safe
with their mothers
> both deal with fear of losing a parent. In the
current day story, this is not a real threat and
is temporary and resolved; in the past story,
it is a real threat that really happened and that
was long-lasting/permanent and unresolved
> the current day story has satisfaction at the
beginning and end: the past story has no
satisfactory resolution in the past, but there
is hope of some in the present.
Analysing evaluative language
The table above includes examples that explicitly
refer to or imply emotions. This is a good starting
point with your students. As your students are ready,
other choices which ‘evoke’ emotions may be added.
For example:
• flags flickered in the breeze (+ happiness)
• sat around the hissing fire, smell of breakfast
flooded the camp (+ satisfaction)
• twirled around her mother’s legs; Maggie buried
herself deep into her mother’s skirt (+ security).
Identification and interpretation of emotions—
particularly those evoked—can dier according to
experience. They might not look so positive from
an outsider perspective: families living in camps,
fires, hissing, flies, dust. While analyses may vary,
the overall patterns of analysis will be the same.
This kind of analysis supports:
• inference and interpretation of key messages
• focus on the grammatical tools used by authors
to ‘show’ rather than ‘tell’ their readers
• focus on vocabulary and tools to express emotions
in more formal, written-like ways, including
nominalisations.
Focus on more written-like
grammatical resources
• Explain/revise that in spoken language we often
use adjectives to describe our feelings, eg was
sad, but in written texts authors often ‘show’ rather
than ‘tell’ us what a character feels. To do this they
use a wide range of grammatical resources.
• Provide groups with ‘heading cards’ of grammatical
resources as listed in the table.
Grammatical
resource
Example from text
Saying process gasped, say sorry
Circumstance frantically, softly
Action process hushed, every eye locked, slipped,
losing the grip of her mother’s
hand, trapped, crawled, tears ran,
touched, kissed, wiped her tears
Adjectives (in
noun groups)
tender hand, hot tears
Metaphor a hum of excitement, heart danced
with delight, in a sea of legs, roared
with applause
Nominalisation excitement, delight, hope
• Students classify words and phrases previously
identified.
• Point out that the author didn’t use adjectives
to tell feelings: she didn’t say the children were
happy: instead she sometimes used an adjective
in a noun group to show or imply a feeling, eg
hot tears.
• Display and introduce/revise the register continuum
(see page 3 of the introduction to ‘LEAP targeted
strategies to accelerate SAE proficiency’).
• Groups discuss which of the resources (based
on its examples) is most spoken-like and which
is most written-like. Determine placement on a
continuum. (Based on the examples used in the
text, the table above has most spoken-like at the
top and most written-like at the bottom.)
• Provide a list of common emotions using an
everyday, spoken adjective and write each word
on a separate card: happy, sad, loved, lonely,
frightened, safe, excited, bored, content, angry.
• Take one of the words, eg lonely, and ask students
to suggest more precise synonyms, eg unloved,
ignored, isolated, rejected. Model using the
thesaurus tool to extend the list, eg deserted,
unappreciated, abandoned.
• Allocate groups another word to generate more
precise synonyms in a shared document.
• Provide/generate a list of common suxes used
to nominalise adjectives (-ance, -dom, -ity, -ment,
-ness, -tion, -ty) and model using spellcheck and
thesaurus tools to check hypothesised versions.
26
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
26
See also Nouns and noun groups 14 ‘Compacted details to carry ideas forward’ – ‘Focus on nominalisation’.
20 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE
Adjective Noun
lonely loneliness
ignored *ignorance
isolated isolation
rejected rejection
deserted desertion
abandoned abandonment
*Note/discuss any shifts in meaning, eg ignorance
does not carry the meaning of being ignored and
feeling isolated. Remove words that shift in meaning
from the list and point out that it is not always
possible to nominalise.
• Groups add nominalisations of their words and
synonyms to the anchor chart.
• Model ‘Showing the feeling’, using another
grammatical device:
> saying process: sighed to herself
> circumstance: dejectedly
> action: sat alone, longingly looked on as the
others played
> adjectives in noun groups: long, lonely
lunchtimes; cold and cruel, silent stares of the
other children
> metaphor: cold shoulder, an alien in a hostile
environment, tossed aside like a piece of
rubbish.
• Point out that often 2 or more devices are used
in combination.
• Discuss the idea that metaphors and similes are
often culturally bound. They often depend on
shared cultural understandings (like a bandicoot
on a burnt ridge; like a shag on a rock), so some
cannot really be translated. Call on students to
share metaphors/similes for feeling lonely or
rejected from other languages or other contexts/
texts. These may include colloquial expressions,
eg I felt as popular as a cat at a dog show; as lonely
as a selfie post without any likes.
• Allocate each group another key emotion: they
develop a list of examples of various grammatical
resources, including creating their own metaphors
and add them to a shared class resource.
• Provide feedback and edit the lists as necessary.
Collate into a shared class resource.
• Jointly construct descriptions which could become
pages in a picture book about a shared school
experience, eg swimming carnival, NAIDOC week.
• Students practise using extended vocabulary
(spoken and written) in activities such as:
> text-based discussions: describe emotions
depicted in images or how they believe a
character would have felt at a particular point in
a book/film
> pairs choose a positive emotion: brainstorm
and use the brain dump technique
27
to generate
ideas and create a short scene that conveys
that emotion. Share with another pair to receive
feedback. Swap partners and repeat for a
negative emotion.
• Students choose a time from their childhood that
has a connection to Sorry Day and that evoked
a strong emotion, eg excitement, joy, sadness or
boredom when attending a celebration, ceremony
or other large gathering; happiness and freedom
when playing; hiding when playing or when in
danger; fear of being lost or separated from family.
• Use visualisation techniques to recall sights,
sounds, smells and sensations.
• Students make notes of words and phrases that
will help them paint the picture and show what
they felt. They draft descriptions which could
become pages in their personal narrative. Share
drafts with a friend to receive feedback.
• Students redraft and add a writer’s statement
explaining and justifying language choices for
desired eects.
Emotion in a historical recount
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Display and read the historical recount of National
Sorry Day found at the back of Sorry Day.
• Students share any emotions they feel in response,
eg sadness, anger, sympathy.
• Students work in pairs to listen for and record any
words that convey or evoke emotion as you reread
the first paragraph: share with the wider group.
• Model ‘think aloud’ as you identify and highlight:
remove, from their families, taken, and Stolen
Generations.
• Repeat for the next 2 paragraphs, calling on
students to identify and justify words to highlight.
Explain that we may not all identify the same
words; there is no exact right and wrong; it may
depend on connections with our past experiences.
• Small groups continue identifying evaluative
language denoting emotion.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
27
Brain dump (free-writing) only has one rule – you can’t stop writing. If you can’t think of anything else to write, rewrite the
previous word or sentence until you can.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE | 21
Varied intensity and objectivity
• Introduce/revise the notion of varying the intensity
of our attitudes, equating it to turning the volume
up or down.
• From the evaluative language identified in texts
written about Stolen Generations,
28
ask students
to locate the various wordings that have been
used to say that the children were taken from their
families. List them on the board.
• In groups, students write each wording on a separate
card and arrange in clines
29
of increasing intensity:
the removal of Aboriginal children, removed, taken,
forced separation, stolen, taken by force, torn apart.
• Explore the eect of nominalisations in examples
on cards, (removal, separation) in creating more
distance and objectivity and how the intensity may
be varied by adding details around the nominalisation
in a noun group, eg separation of children from
their families; forced separation; cruel temporary/
permanent removal.
• Identify evaluative language using nominalisations
across the topic texts explored, eg celebrations,
grief, apology, trauma, risk, force and discuss the
eect of these choices.
• In pairs, students take a current event report with
subjective and emotive eye-witness and victim
statements and change to a more distant and
‘objective’ recount.
• Share and explain/justify the changes they made.
Critical literacy and nominalisation
30
Nominalisation, like passive voice, often removes the
‘doers’, eg ‘Stolen Generations’, ‘forced separation’.
Who stole them? Who forced them? Who separated
them?
Critical literacy and passive voice
Throughout the historical recount provided as an
endnote to Sorry Day, the Australian Government
and White Australians are presented as the ‘doers’,
with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians
the ‘done to’. Passive voice allows the Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander children and their families to be
the ‘subject’ or focus of the clause. At first the ‘doers’
are included: ‘… thousands of children were taken
by government authorities.’ From then on, they are
mostly omitted: ‘Children were taken away from their
families by force and were sent far away …’
10. Judgement of individual
characters and groups
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Choose a picture book or novel that focuses on
a character/characters connected to a current or
historical issue, eg Refugee Boy.
• Introduce the novel and explain that you will
explore evaluative language used to judge people’s
behaviour and character. In particular, you will
explore how the main character is portrayed
and consider how this reflects on refugees more
generally.
• At the end of chapter 1, focus on what Alem’s
father tells him, displaying the quotes ‘there are
good and bad [people] everywhere’, ‘we want you
to be one of the good ones.’ Small groups discuss
what it means to be a good person or a bad
person, generating lists of adjectives for each.
• Display a chart such as Resource 1, focusing on
the categories of judgement.
• Groups sort and share their adjectives into the
categories to build a digital class anchor chart to
be added to throughout the learning sequence.
• Assign each group to either a positive or negative
of one of the sub-category/probe questions:
> Are they unique or unusual?
> Are they capable?
> Are they dependable?
> Are they good/bad?
> Are they honest/dishonest?
• Groups use a thesaurus to find synonyms for the
adjectives in their sub-category and add them to
the digital anchor chart. They sort the words from
everyday/informal to more formal/academic.
Groups present their thinking and, as a class, make
adjustments as required.
• Each student makes their own copy of the anchor
chart and codes words using a trac light system, eg:
> words they already use (green)
> words they understand and could use with
conscious eort (orange)
> unfamiliar words that they don’t fully understand
(red).
28
See also White B & Hamilton A (2013) ‘Stolen Generations’, in Composing Written Texts across the Australian Curriculum F–6,
Catholic Education South Australia, pp.148–152.
29
Cline: ‘a scale (= set of numbers, levels, etc) on which things can be arranged in order according to a particular feature or quality’,
http://TLinSA.2.vu/Cline (accessed November 2020).
30
See also the Cohesive devices introduction and Cohesive devices 12 ‘Strategic orientations and text organisation’ –
‘Orientation to abstraction through passive voice and nominalisation’.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
22 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE
• Students identify:
> 8 to 12 red and orange words they will focus
on using to build their vocabulary
> strategies they will use to achieve their goal
> how they will record evidence of their
achievement.
• At key points, students engage in accountable talk
to describe Alem’s character, discussing whether
he is showing that he is a ‘good’ person, drawing
on evidence from the book.
• After reading the scene in chapter 23, where Alem
is at the supermarket with his father (pp.266–267),
jointly identify evaluative language and record it (see
Resource 5: Analysing evaluative language (Refugee
Boy)). The framework used as been adapted to this
purpose and context. Emotion, judgement and
modality have been included to focus on how the
refugees are positioned. Evaluation of things has
been omitted, as that is not the focus here.
• Discuss how refugees are positioned/portrayed
and what evidence supports this. Focus questions:
> How do the refugees feel and why?
> How are they judged/treated by others in the
supermarket?
> How does Alem feel and why?
> What do you think the author wants us to think
and feel about refugees? What is he using to
do this?
> Are these various views and feelings about
refugees apparent in Australia? What’s your
evidence?
Evidence for views beyond the book
This may include personal experience, news headlines
and reports, letters to the editor, social media comments
and websites of organisations such as the Refugee
Council of Australia and the Asylum Seeker Resource
Centre. Both provide myths and myth-busting facts
about refugees.
• Read first line of next scene on p.267: ‘When Alem
arrived at school the next day, he received a hero’s
welcome.’
• Stress that this immediately follows the supermarket
scene and discuss the eect of this authorial choice.
• Read the next few pages (to the end of p.271
or p.273).
• Pairs identify evaluative language in the passage
and record it in a table like Resource 5.
• Discuss how Alem is positioned/portrayed here
and what the evidence is for this. Focus questions:
> How is Alem judged/treated by others?
> How does Alem feel and why?
> What do you think the authors want us to think
and feel about refugees? What are they using
to do this?
> Are these views and feelings about refugees
apparent in Australia?
• Students read chapter 27 (pp.284–285) and
prepare their individual responses, including
supporting evidence, to focus questions such as:
> How does Alem position/portray himself here?
> How does he feel and why?
> What do you think the authors want you to think
and feel about refugees? What are they using to
do this?
> Has the author reinforced or changed your view
of refugees? If so, how?
• Students draw on their prepared responses in text-
based discussions.
• Students prepare myths and myth-busting
statements, using Alem’s story as evidence.
• Students read biographies of present and past
refugees who have made significant contributions
to their new home-land, identifying evaluative
language.
• Discuss similarities and dierences in the
patterns of evaluative language used (eg less
emotive and more written-like choices, including
nominalisation); the eects of the dierences; and
why dierent choices were made according to
genre, purpose and audience.
• Students construct a multimodal presentation for
a specific audience and purpose about an historical
figure and their contribution.
• Students create writer’s statements and present to
the class examples of choices they made and their
intended eect, based on the specified audience
and purpose.
Extend the learning
Many evaluation tasks at school and in the work-
force, including job-interviews, require judgement of
one’s own qualities and attributes. This is ‘culturally’
dicult for many students (and adults) and students
need to be scaolded and supported to develop
this skill.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE | 23
• Provide materials that outline skills and capabilities
that are identified as:
> necessary in the workplace
> important for the 21st century
> key to being future ready.
• Together generate a list of key skills and capabilities.
• Develop a bank of resources to talk about these
skills and capabilities through adjectives and
nominalisations, eg flexible, flexibility; adaptable,
adaptability; creative, creativity; innovative,
innovation; problem-solving ability, ability
to problem-solve; trouble-shooting.
• Model/jointly and independently construct
statements. Practise using word banks of adjectives
and nominalisations to evaluate personal qualities,
providing evidence, eg:
> I demonstrated that I am reliable and dedicated
through my punctuality. Even though I had to
get up at 5.30am and catch 2 buses to get to
work on time, I was never late.
> Getting up at 5.30am and catching 2 buses to
arrive at work punctually, showed my dedication
and reliability.
> Through daily practice, I have been able to
improve my accuracy and eciency.
> Being oered the job of trolley supervisor, showed
that my boss trusted me and thought I was reliable
and responsible. In that role, I have been able to
further develop and demonstrate my leadership
and problem-solving skills.
11. Varied intensity and
modality to modulate claims
Links to other curriculum areas
At Levels 7–9, students often over-intensify or make
bold assertions. To progress to Levels 10–12 and
to meet academic demands across the curriculum,
those evaluations and claims need to be tempered
and supported with evidence. Students are required
to appropriately vary intensity and modality as they:
• argue and discuss issues in English, humanities and
social sciences (HASS), health, science
• report on investigations in mathematics, science,
geography, health and physical education or
design and technology
• review artworks, films, books, performances in
the arts or English; or learning experiences, such
as in the Personal Learning Plan (PLP).
What is considered appropriate and eective in 1
learning area, will not necessarily be deemed so in
another, eg the word proved is appropriate in English,
HASS and other areas to say, for instance, that ‘this
proved to be a mistake’. However, proved has a
particular meaning in mathematics and science,
where it not appropriate to say that an investigation
proved a hypothesis or theory. Hence, it is important
to work with subject specialists.
Engage and revise
• Display and read 2 statements: one that is extreme
and one that is tempered. Here, 2 statements are
taken from Resource 6: Varying intensity in an
argument:
1. Everyone loves pets, dogs, cats, birds and fish.
2. Pets can be great company, but they also do
more for us than we might initially think.
• Students reflect on their reactions/the impacts
of the 2 statements and then discuss in groups,
using focus questions such as:
> How do you feel when you read/hear the
2 statements?
> What do you think about the author: how
credible/authoritative do they seem?
> How strong/certain and assertive are these
statements and what is the eect of that?
> What if you don’t really like any of these
animals/pets? Are you likely to keep reading/
listening to either of these?
> What if you know just one person who doesn’t
love/like animals/pets? What does that mean
for the arguments?
See extracts provided from investigation reports in
mathematics, science and geography (on page 24)
for alternative statements.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
24 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE
Extracts from investigation reports
Mathematics Science Geography
31
By analysing the back to back stem
and leaf plot, it is obvious that Mr
Sykes’ class scored mostly from
400 to 800.
Although some of the heart rates
increased by just a little bit, this
data shows that our heart rate
will always increase when we are
scared.
I cannot fault anything that they
are currently doing to preserve
water. They are doing the best that
they possibly can.
Therefore, it may be fair to guess
that the median lies within four
hundred to eight hundred.
In conclusion, we proved that
people’s heart rate will increase
if they get scared.
I was not expecting this good an
outcome from the investigation. I
was shocked at the large amount
of water used for irrigation.
On the other hand, in Ms
Alexopoulos’ class, over three
fourths of the students have an
average score of a thousand, so
it is quite certain that their class
average is well over a thousand,
considering the fact that the
lowest scores were mere 660s.
Our hypothesis was that the heart
rate of the test subject will be
normal when they have not been
scared but, once the jump scare
occurs, their heart rate will rise
significantly. This was mostly true
since only one of the test subject’s
heart rate didn’t increase by a lot.
I am glad to hear that they have
been using recycled water instead
of fresh water which helps to
explain the low water bill. I am so
pleased to hear that Salisbury has
a recycled water system that the
school uses.
The student who scored over 1800
proved to be an outlier.
Therefore, I would say my
hypothesis is true.
All this information, this leads
me to believe that the school has
been proven to use water in a very
effective way.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Call on students to identify and highlight evaluative language in the 2 statements:
1.
Everyone
loves pets, dogs, cats, birds and fish.
2. Pets can be
great
company, but they also do more for us than we
might initially
think.
• Discuss eects, drawing out that:
> over-intensifying or simply making bold assertions can make our arguments weaker: they are easier to
disagree with/disprove and can turn a reader/listener away
> taking a softer, more measured or tempered approach can make the author sound more reasonable and
so more credible or authoritative: this can keep a reader/listener open to our ideas.
• Provide groups with a set of statements to sort:
> strong – extreme, too high
> more reasonable/tempered.
• Groups highlight evaluative language and prepare to share categorisation and justifications with the class.
• Students examine evaluative language identified and share what they know/notice about any resources used
to adjust the intensity of the arguments.
• As a whole group, revise categories of resources to vary intensity (see Resource 2), and modality (see
Resource 3.) Display or build together a table that combines these 2 categories of resources (see Resource 7
—note that this resource has been completed for sequence 15).
• Model and jointly enter some of the highlighted examples from the student text in Resource 6 into the table.
Groups complete the analysis.
31
The Geography examples in the second and third rows also include highlighted examples of inappropriate ‘expressions
of emotions’.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE | 25
• Using Resource 2 and Resource 3, model
tempering the first sentences of the argument,
both of which are ‘extreme’ statements, eg:
Everyone loves pets, dogs, cats, birds and fish.
They’re always giving us warm, loving feelings.
Many people around the world own pets.
Whether dogs, cats, birds, fish or a variety of
other animals, most pet owners love their pets.
Not only do they love them, but they value the
warmth and love they receive in return.
Examples here highlight language varying intensity (in
pink) and modality (in purple). The shift from adjectives
(warm, loving) to nouns/nominalisations (warmth, love)
also creates more ‘distance’ and objectivity.
• Jointly modify the next sentence, eg:
I know without any doubt, that any and every
household should own a pet.
Research indicates that owning a pet brings
many benefits to a household.
• Pairs modify other ‘extreme’ statements and share
their reworked versions with the whole group.
• As a whole group, choose/use reworked versions
to create a new argument and compare the eect
of the combined choices. Discuss the shift in
register and the eect of increasing the ‘authority’
and ‘credibility’ of the writer.
32
• Students develop their own arguments related
to a learning area topic for which you have built
the field.
• Students share drafts with a peer to receive
feedback on the level of intensity and then redraft
in response.
• Students annotate their text, highlighting resources
they have used to adjust the intensity, and provide
a writer’s statement explaining some of their choices
and the eect they wanted to create for the reader.
32
See also Verbs and verb groups 20 ‘Saying and mental processes to cite and attribute to sources’ – ‘Vocabulary choices that
strengthen or weaken citations’.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
26 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE
LEVELS 1012 LEAPING TO LEVELS 1314
LEVELS 10–12 LEAPING TO LEVELS 13–14
Learning sequence Language in focus Genres
12. Formal and authoritative
evaluative language to
present varied viewpoints
• more formal and inferred
judgements of people
• nominalisations to objectify feelings
and emotions and judgements –
personal qualities
• formal choices to vary intensity
• modality for authority, and to show
openness to other views
• discussions
• reviews, evaluations
• research reports
• literary interpretations
13. Judgement and
evaluation to show
significance
• explicit judgement of people and
their significance
• evaluating significance with varied
intensity
• biographies
• historical recounts
• historical accounts
• literary analyses
14. Implying judgement in
history
• judgements of people • historical recounts
• historical accounts
• expositions: arguments,
discussions
15. Evaluative language in
issues analyses
• evaluation of things
• judgements of people
• varied intensity
• modality
• issues analysis
• evaluations
• investigation reports
Suggested mentor text
Books (bolding indicates that the sequence is based around this text) Learning sequence
Pascoe B (2014) Young Dark Emu: A Truer History, Magabala Books 14
While the various aspects of evaluative language can be focused on separately, at this level, it is also useful to
explore how they work in combination. This has 2 benefits as it develops understandings of:
• how the various choices combine to build meaning across a text
• patterns of evaluative language at the more written, academic and abstract end of the register continuum.
12. Formal and authoritative evaluative language to present
varied viewpoints
• Choose a suitable model discussion text, such as Cohesive devices Resource 8: Discussion/argument:
Should children play computer games?
• Identify and analyse evaluative language using an analysis framework, such as Resource 8: Analysing
evaluative language in a discussion, which has been partially completed as a guide.
• Based on your analysis and learning intentions, choose 1 or 2 key aspects of evaluative language that:
> are important to demonstrate deep learning of the content
> will support your students to LEAP to Levels 13–14.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE | 27
Focus on inferred judgement
Engage
• Assign students to 1 of 4 dierent identity groups:
1. a child who plays computer games
2. a child who doesn’t play computer games
3. a parent whose children play computer games
4. a parent whose children don’t play computer
games.
• As you read the text ‘Should children play computer
games?’, students listen from the perspective of
their group.
• Students share their feelings within their identity
group, locating evidence from the text in support.
Point out that individuals may feel dierently about
how they were portrayed.
• Groups share their views with supporting evidence.
Elicit points such as:
> Group 1
Children who play computer games are portrayed
negatively as addicts, unable to control the
amount they play and lacking social skills.
Although there is also inference that they are
motivated, responsible and social.
> Group 2 and group 4
Children who don’t play, as well as their parents,
may feel relieved that they are not at risk of the
negative impacts, but some may feel they are
missing out on the benefits.
> Group 3
Parents whose children play are portrayed as
concerned, which is positive: it infers they are
caring parents, though there may also be an
inferred negative that they are not setting limits
and supervising adequately.
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Identify evaluative language in the model text
Cohesive devices Resource 8: Discussion/
argument: Should children play computer games?
• Using Resource 1, revise categories of emotion,
judgement and evaluation.
• Model and jointly place the evaluative language
from the first paragraph into the framework
in Resource 8. Groups complete the analysis.
• Use the completed analysis to discuss judgements
made in the text, using focus questions such as:
> What categories are used?
> Who is judged explicitly and/or by implication?
> What language resources are used?
• Elicit from discussions that:
> the text is explicit about children’s competencies
+ve and -ve
> the +ve and -ve appear balanced
> there are no explicit judgements of people
regarding morals/ethics. (Refer back to earlier
discussions about inference: that concerned
parents are good parents and that lack of limits/
supervision infers bad parents.) Violence in the
games also infers -ve moral/legal (crime)
> many nominalisations are used to:
– express emotions: enjoyment, concerns
– refer to behaviours and qualities:
concentration, perseverance, coordination,
reflex responses, resilience, health and habits,
addiction, sedentary lifestyle, supervision.
Focus on nominalisation
• Select sentences using nominalisation, allocating 1
to each pair within a group of 4. Pairs unpack their
sentence into a more spoken-like form:
Reworking formal to informal
Sentences using
nominalisations
Reworked more
spoken version
Some cite parental
concerns about the use
of time and money and
exposure to violence.
Parents are worried that
their children waste too
much time and money
and the games are too
violent.
The most favourable
aspect is the enjoyment
they experience spending
time with their friends.
What the players love
most is enjoying time
with their friends.
The regular players
show higher levels of
concentration and
perseverance.
The ones who play a
lot can concentrate for
longer and stick at hard
things longer.
Children spend a great
deal of time and money
on these games to the
point of an unhealthy
addiction.
They spend way too
much time and money
because they get
addicted and that’s not
healthy.
Key: nominalisations, verbs, adjectives and
conjunctions
• Students swap sentences with the other pair in their
group. Pairs then read the spoken-like sentences
and identify the words they could nominalise, using
them to write a more written-like sentence.
• Students display and share a spoken-like and
reworked written-like sentence with class. Compare
written-like versions to original text. Discuss choices
made and eects, eg distancing or removing
emotion, removing agency.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
28 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE
Varying intensity – formal choices
• Use the examples from the above table: Reworking
formal to informal. Students identify and highlight
the language used to increase or decrease the
intensity of the evaluations.
Varying intensity of evaluations
Sentences using
nominalisations
Reworked more
spoken version
Some cite parental
concerns about the use
of time and money and
exposure to violence.
Parents are worried that
their children waste too
much time and money
and see too much
violence.
The most favourable
aspect is the enjoyment
they experience spending
time with their friends.
What the players love
most is enjoying time
with their friends.
The regular players
show higher levels
of concentration and
perseverance.
The ones who play a
lot can concentrate for
longer and stick at hard
things longer.
Children spend a great
deal of time and money
on these games to the
point of an unhealthy
addiction.
They spend way too
much time and money
because they get
addicted and that’s not
healthy.
Resource 2 could be used to categorise resources
used and to provide further examples to support
discussions.
• Discuss patterns and their eects, eg:
> spoken-like versions rely on simple, everyday
language built around verbs:
– intensifiers: spend way too much time
– measures: play a lot
– comparatives: concentrate/stick at longer;
and superlatives: love most
> written-like versions use less common, more
formal language built around nouns (often
nominalisations) or adjectives in noun groups:
– measures: a great deal of time and money
– comparatives: higher levels; and superlatives:
most favourable aspect
– sharpen: regular player.
• Students identify noun groups and analyse them
to show the use of numeratives, describers and
classifiers: some of the greatest positives; many
child psychologists, several key areas.
• Point out that classifiers can be used to show
discipline specific knowledge: physical problems,
social benefits.
• Engage students in activities to develop more
formal choices, such as for:
> amount: greater, a great deal of, an increase
in, a slight increase in, a marked increase in,
an array, a vast array, vast quantities of
> better: increased, improved, enhanced,
heightened
> important: significant, key, vital, critical, crucial,
major and those that turn down importance –
minor, trivial.
Modality – being authoritative,
while showing openness to
other views
• Revisit the completed analysis framework
(Resource 8) and now focus on expressions
of modality.
• In groups, students focus on probe questions
and locate sentences where modality is used:
> How certain is it?
> How certain is cause-eect?
> How often or usual is it?
> How obligated are we/they?
• Explore patterns, noting that it is often happening
through the verb groups and in combination.
• Pairs experiment with making them more ‘definite/
extreme’ (polarising) statements. Share statements
and discuss the eect of the changes.
• Small groups generate other possible arguments
for and against playing computer games (or another
topic, they are knowledgeable about).
• In pairs, they:
> take 1 to 2 of the arguments and generate
spoken-like, extreme (black or white) statements
> rework their statements to be more written-like
> annotate and/or develop writers’ statements
to identify resources used and justify choices
> display and read one written-like statement with
the class
> call on 1 to 2 classmates to share the eect
it had and identify resources used to create it,
eg nominalisations, more formal choices to
vary intensity and/or modality
> respond with their intended eect and intentional
use of resources.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE | 29
Focus on distanced emotion
• Explain that in more formal and academic
contexts, there is less emphasis on emotion:
‘subjective’ experiences of emotions are often
reframed and expressed as ‘distanced’ evaluations
or judgements, as shown in the image of
interrelatedness of evaluative language, which
appears in the introduction on page 4.
• Draw attention to the pattern of form for
evaluative adjectives in the image (I was engaged,
an engaging speaker, an engaging speech) and
generate other examples connected to the topic
of computer games:
> ‘ed’ sux (worried, concerned, delighted,
satisfied, motivated, inspired, daunted) describing
a personal feeling experienced by someone, eg
I am inspired. She felt daunted by the experience
(emotion)
> ‘ing’ sux: (worrying, concerning, frustrating,
satisfying, motivating, inspiring):
– describing someone else and the feeling they
produce in others, eg He is an inspiring role
model; She is a highly motivating speaker
(judgement)
– describing something, a product or process,
and the feeling they produce in others, eg His
story is inspiring; It was a daunting experience
(evaluation)
> point out other suxes, eg enjoy-able, delight-ful.
• Model, jointly and independently use ‘distancing’
adjectives to reframe emotion as evaluation, so that
the focus shifts away from people to things (games)
or an abstraction (violence), eg Parents are worried
(emotion). Games often contain a concerning level
of violence. The exposure to violence is worrying/
concerning (evaluation).
EALD students often misinterpret the ‘ed’ and ‘ing’
suxes, seeing them as denoting tense. So, when
speaking about a feeling they are experiencing in the
present, they will use ‘ing’ sux, eg I am boring, I am
exciting.
Links to other genres and curriculum areas
A focus on how to ascribe feelings to other people
or things is valuable to support students to move
away from personalised to more distanced ‘reactions’
when evaluating products and processes across
the curriculum, eg I was captivated (emotion); She
is a captivating character (judgement); It was a
captivating performance (evaluation).
13. Judgement and evaluation
to show significance
Focus on judgement
• Choose a topic and task that requires judgement
of people and their significance. Locate suitable
source material (see footnotes) providing examples
of judgement. For example, the topic could be
‘women in colonial Australian history’ with the task
being to construct a consequential explanation of
the impact of women on 19th century Australia
(see Resource 9: The impact of women on 19th
century Australia).
Engage
• Use the suggested ‘setting the context’ activity in
the National Equity Program Write it Right Project.
33
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• View the YouTube clip Shaping a Nation: Mary
Reibey.
34
• Students share whether Mary is portrayed positively
or negatively and provide examples of language
that supports their belief when rewatching the clip.
• Display a transcript and highlight words/phrases
students identified.
• Display and revise the categories of judgement
(see the section on judgement in Resource 1).
• Classify language into the categories of judgement.
Create an anchor chart that can be added to
throughout the unit.
• Provide copies of 2 texts: teacher background
notes
35
and the blog page on Mary Reibey.
36
• In groups, half the class work with one text and half
with the other to identify language of judgement:
they categorise it and add to class resource.
33
National Equity Program for Schools (1995) ‘Write it Right Project: Women in 19th century Australia’, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/
wirHistoryWomen (accessed November 2020).
34
‘Shaping a Nation: Mary Reibey’, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/BioMaryReibey (accessed November 2020).
35
‘Significant Individuals – Mary Reibey‘, teacher background notes, State Library of NSW, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/NotesMaryReibey
(accessed November 2020).
36
Cama N (2017) ‘Mary Reibey: Australia’s pioneering businesswoman’, Dictionary of Sydney, available at
http://TLinSA.2.vu/BlogMaryReibey (accessed November 2020).
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
30 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE
• In pairs or individually, students research another key Australian woman of the time and add examples of
judgement to the class resource.
Judging people Positive Negative
Personal attributes
Are they unique or unusual
in any way?
perfect, lively, gifted, beloved, pioneer, wealthy,
adventurous, spirited, truly great, auence and social
standing
brash, notoriety
Are they capable? capable, intelligent, successful, single-handedly, admired,
strength, prowess, prosperous in own right, practicality
Are they dependable? tenacity, worked tirelessly, rose to challenge, energy and
drive, toughness, perseverance, determination
Ethics
Are they good/bad? modest, generous, compassionate, loving, humble,
caring, selflessly
unsympathetic
Are they honest/dishonest? great integrity, respectable, respect/ed stole, theft, mischief
• Take one of the words, such as lively, and jointly make a list of words/phrases that have a similar meaning,
eg adventurous, spirited.
• Determine a heading word or phrase that encapsulates these qualities/attributes: one of the words in the list
may be suitable, eg full of life, spirit, spirit of adventure. Note they are nominalisations or a phrase/metaphor
built around one.
• Groups sort other expressions of judgement with similar meanings and determine suitable headings. Share
headings and, as a class, choose 3 or 4 key traits.
• Use thesaurus tools to develop a bank of resources to talk about key traits through adjectives and
nominalisations, eg capability and dependability, for example:
Adjectives indicating traits
of capability and dependability
Nominalisations indicating traits
of capability and dependability
capable dependable capability dependability
able
talented
proficient
skilled
gifted
ecient
competent
accomplished
accurate
qualified
responsible
reliable
persevering
determined
persistent
resilient
organised
diligent
conscientious
dedicated
ability
proficiency
skill
strength
gift
eciency
competence
accomplishment
accuracy
achievement
aptitude
experience
expertise
capacity
reliability
perseverance
determination
persistence
resilience
diligence
resolve
dedication
endurance
grit
tenacity
drive
organisation
conscientiousness
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE | 31
• Create a shared note-taking frame to which
evidence can be added.
• Choose one trait. Collaborate with students to
provide evidence or an example of a woman
exhibiting this trait. Add the evidence to the
note-taking frame.
• Assign pairs of students with a trait from the list
and have them locate evidence. Students engage
in evidence-based, accountable talk to practice
using the language of judgement, backed by
evidence.
• Class discusses one of the traits with focus questions
such as:
> What did this quality enable women/a particular
woman to do?
> What was the impact of this quality?
• Again add this to the note-taker.
• Provide a copy of the model text Resource 9 and
read it together. Model/jointly deconstruct the first
body paragraph (paragraph 2: impact 1) asking the
following guiding questions:
> What was the impact/contribution? social welfare
> Which woman is used as an example? Caroline
Chisolm
> What qualities are portrayed? dedication,
compassion, justice
> What did this enable her to do? find jobs for
women, set up a home/accommodation, lobby
governments, capture the attention of those
with influence.
• Assign remaining body paragraphs (impacts 2 and 3)
to groups to analyse using the guiding questions
and then share.
Focus on evaluation and intensity
• Point out that as the task is to explain the impact
women had, language that indicates significance
is important.
• Use the introductory (orientation) paragraph to
model, highlighting words that indicate impact
and its significance with increased intensity: great
impact, significant contribution, establishing,
influenced development.
• Jointly analyse the first body (impact) paragraph,
pointing out the language of cause-eect that
indicates her impact: As a result, Consequently,
Because of her actions.
• Students continue highlighting words that
demonstrate increased intensity and impact,
including cause-eect.
Increase
intensity
Impact Cause-eect
great
significant
One significant
area
important
impact
contributions
establishing
influenced
development
influenced by
contributions
As a result
Consequently
Because of her
actions
resulted in
led to
pivotal in
great
in many areas
greatly
establishing
helped to create
have enriched
helped form
played a
part in building
influence
shaped by
• Students select one of the class’s previously chosen
key traits displayed by women of this era.
• Students draft a body impact paragraph that
includes:
> the impact/contribution
> one or more women as evidence/example
> the qualities portrayed
> what this enabled them to do/achieve.
• Share draft to gain peer feedback.
• Redraft based on feedback.
14. Implying judgement
in history
Evaluative language in history
Providing students with evaluative language frameworks
and resources enables them to recognise how
historical events and figures are positioned in texts.
It also allows them to more intentionally interpret or
reinterpret events in the history texts they produce.
The degree and type of evaluation and judgement used
in history genres vary, with the typical patterns being:
• recording (recounts and accounts): overall
absence of explicit judgement and valuation
• explaining (factorial and consequential
explanations): interpreting through explicit valuation
and judgement of social esteem (competency) but
absence of explicit judgement of ethics
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
32 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE
• arguing (expositions, discussions, challenges): explicit valuation and judgement of social esteem
(competency) and ethics
• autobiographical recount: used to develop empathy, is the only genre that includes explicit emotion.
Expectations in dierent tasks need to be made explicit, as very few students work this out on their own
(Con 2006).
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Discuss when it is appropriate in history texts to explicitly judge people and their actions and when it is more
appropriate to imply judgements.
37
• Point out that there will often be inferred judgements in history texts, which students will need to interpret.
Judgement and cultural values
‘… the judgement framework is determined by cultural and ideological values, meaning behaviour is likely
to be interpreted or classified dierently according to the set of social values to which the reader or analyst
subscribes’
(Con 2006:146). A challenge for EALD students is to interpret events through an ‘expected/agreed’
set of cultural values and norms.
• Provide an extract from a relevant text, eg the introduction to Young Dark Emu: A Truer History.
• Students listen to how the first British settlers are portrayed and consider:
> Is it positive or negative?
> If you only knew about them from this text, what would you think?
> What word/words would you use to describe them?
• Groups briefly share responses before whole group shares to elicit that the language used about colonisers:
> is mostly negative: list a few words to describe/judge them: self-serving, entitled, narrow-minded,
mono-viewed, arrogant, greedy, presumptuous, sense of superiority
> includes some who are regarded as positive: loyal, industrious, confident, motivated.
• Display and revise the categories of judgement (see the section on judgement in Resource 1).
• Groups return to the text for a close reading, stopping at the end of each sentence to interpret:
> What view of the British settlers is presented?
> What word/words would we use to describe them?
> Where would this fit in the categories of judgement?
See table below as an example:
Extract from the introduction to
Young Dark Emu: A Truer History
Interpretation Judgement category
When the British ocers and convicts of the First Fleet
arrived in Australia in 1788, their aim was to claim the
land as their own.
seems neutral/objective
underlying -ve taking
what wasn’t theirs?
-ve moral: dishonest
They considered it their duty to expand the British Empire. +ve loyal, serving country +ve dependable
They were confident in the assumption that they had the
‘right’ to occupy the ‘empty land’.
-ve sense of entitlement -ve moral: bad (unjust)
and dishonest
It is clear from the journals of early settlers and explorers
that few came to Australia to marvel at a new civilisation
– they had come to replace it.
-ve narrow-minded, not
interested in learning
new ways from others,
self-serving
-ve moral: bad (unjust)
They planned to clear land, grow crops, farm, build
houses, make towns and cities and establish law and
order as they recognised it.
+ve well-intentioned,
industrious, wanting law
and order but sting in tail:
‘as they recognised it’
+ve capable,
dependable
In their rush for possession of the land, they turned their
eyes away from the obvious signs of civilisation that
already existed.
-ve narrow-minded, saw
only what they wanted,
self-serving, greedy
-ve moral: dishonest
37
If you are not a history specialist, then be sure to consult with one to ensure you are developing accurate understandings of
judgement in the discipline of history.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE | 33
• Discuss as a whole group, acknowledging there
will be some dierences in subtleties of interpretation
or perhaps even resistant readings. Stress again
that we read through our cultural perspectives and
values, which include through the cultural values
of our times.
• Draw out that the negative judgements are moral
judgements and that negative moral judgements
are typically implied, rather than made explicit.
• Students engage in text-based discussions about
implied/inferred judgements of the Aboriginal
people of the time, finding evidence in the text
to support their views. For example, civilisation
implies capable and moral; law and order as they
recognised it together with civilisation that already
existed implies that they already had law and
order, perhaps along with the other things that
are used as indicators of civilisation, eg crops,
housing, towns.
• Students explore a number of other texts related
to the same historical event, conducting source
analysis, using questions such as:
> Is it a primary or secondary source?
> What is its historical context?
> Who is the author/s? What are their vested
interests? What is their level of expertise?
> Whose voice/perspective is included/excluded?
> What judgements of individuals or groups are
implied or made explicit?
• Share and discuss patterns that reveal or reinforce:
> What kinds of judgements are made explicit
and what are implied?
> Who makes explicit negative moral judgements?
> In what kind of texts/contexts are negative
moral judgements made explicit?
15. Evaluative language
in issues analyses
Explicit teaching: I do – we do – you do
• Display/revise the elements of evaluative language
(resources 1 to 3):
> emotion
> judgement of people
> evaluation of things
> varying intensity
> modality.
• Display an issue question, eg ‘To what extent does
the Australian government currently prioritise
funding for elite athletes in comparison to
grassroots spots?’
38
• Groups consider and discuss:
> Is this question asking you to judge or evaluate?
If so, who/what?
> What kind of evaluative language do you think
will be important?
• Display and read the opening paragraph:
Recent claims of an imbalance of funding between
elite athletes and grassroots sports have sparked
vigorous debate regarding the delegation of
money in sports. Some consider Australia’s image
as a successful elite sporting nation to be critical,
justifying the greater funding for elite sports,
whereas others believe that the nation’s long-term
sporting success is dependent on strong support
for grassroots sports.
• Groups consider if this supports their predictions
and modify views if necessary, then find evidence
to support their current views.
• Groups discuss whether the author has revealed
their stance and, if so, how?
• Discuss as a class, drawing out that the task requires:
> explicit evaluation of the current funding
model (reaction: vigorous debate, composition:
imbalance, and value: critical, Australia’s long-
standing image as a successful sporting nation)
> implied judgement of the government (ethical/
honest: imbalance)
> explicit judgement of elite athletes (positive
unique/unusual: critical to Australia’s image
justifying greater funding) vs grassroots sports
(negative capable: success dependent on strong
support for)
> intensity varied in formal ‘factual/objective’ ways:
greater funding, strong support
> modality to temper/mediate: some consider,
others believe.
Focus on implied judgement
• Discuss the author’s judgement and how it is
revealed, eg use of the word ‘imbalance’, indicating
they judge the current model to be unfair.
• Reinforce that this is an implied negative judgement
of the government (their funding model) as unethical.
38
See Sentence structure Resource 4: Model text: PE issues analysis.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
34 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE
• Read the remainder of the text together. Students
do a close reading of the text to find other choices
that carry this meaning of unfairness/injustice
through the text, as shown below:
Indications of unfairness and injustice
Para 2 questions why majority of funding goes
to elite level of low-participation rather
than grassroots level high-participation
imbalance should be questioned
Para 3 ‘whole-of-sport’ approach, suggests will
increase success of lower socio-economic
individuals, to a certain extent, equal
priority
Para 4 to a degree providing equal funding and
recognition; inequality persists, lack of
infrastructure, funding bias, less regard
for lower socioeconomic status; disparity,
need for greater equity
• Using resources, experiment shifting to explicit
judgements, eg … states that the current funding
model is wrong. It is fundamentally biased and
unfair and reinforces inequality.
• Discuss the eect in this context and when such
choices might be appropriate, considering aspects
of context such as genre, audience, purpose, mode.
Varying intensity, including
through modality
39
• Provide a framework for categorising resources
to ‘grade’ or vary the intensity of evaluations and
modality. See Resource 2 and Resource 3, and
Resource 7, which combines the two.
• Students identify and categorise language choices
that increase or decrease the intensity of evaluations
in model text.
• Point out that the more formal, written-like examples
listed here are important Tier 2 vocabulary which
can be used across a range of topics and learning
areas.
• Students provide examples of more spoken-like
choices and compare the eect on credibility
and authority.
• Students discuss other current and/or curriculum
topic issues, using spoken-like explicit judgements.
Record examples.
• Pairs shift to formal, academic written-like
judgements.
• Students construct their own formal, academic
issues analysis.
39
See also learning sequence 12 ‘Varying intensity – formal choices’ on page 28.
LEVELS
1–4
LEVELS
5–6
LEVELS
7–9
LEVELS
10–12
LEVELS
13–14
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE | 35
Resource 1: Resources for expressing attitude
Positive Negative
Expressing feelings/emotions
Happiness
Are they happy or unhappy?
joyfully, love, ecstatic,
buoyant, smiling
sadly, grief, mournful,
depressed, wailing
Security
Are they secure or insecure?
safe, confidently, strode,
secure, stability
scared, petrified, fear,
nervously, threatened
Satisfaction
Are they satisfied or dissatisfied?
pleased, cosy, proudly,
contentment
bored, angrily,
frustration, disappointed
Judging people
Personal attributes
• Are they competent?
• Are they to be admired
or criticised?
Are they unique
or unusual?
lucky, special, normal,
fashionable, trendsetter
unlucky, odd, misfit,
old fashioned
Are they capable? skilled, intelligent,
powerful, adept
silly, useless, weak,
unfit, inept
Are they dependable? brave, tireless, reliable,
tenacious, resilient
spineless, weak, rash,
cowardly, unreliable
Ethics
Are they morally and legally
sound? Are they to be praised
and respected or rebuked and
disapproved?
Are they good/bad? kind, caring, considerate,
noble, just, selfless,
compassionate
cruel, corrupt, evil,
selfish, self-centred,
self-serving, wicked
Are they honest/
dishonest?
truthful, genuine, frank,
open, trustworthy,
transparent
dishonest, manipulative,
covert, disingenuous,
lying, deceitful
Evaluating things
Reaction
• Did you like it?
• Did it grab you?
lovely, captivating,
enthralling, entertaining
dull, tedious, boring,
repulsive
Composition
• Was it well-constructed?
• Did it hang together well?
• Was it easy/hard to follow?
• Was it suciently challenging?
well-crafted, well-
written, imaginative,
intricate, balanced,
harmonious
confusing, predictable,
simplistic, over-bearing,
disjointed, unbalanced
Valuation
Was it worthwhile?
inspiring, challenging,
thought-provoking,
relevant, significant
contribution
irrelevant, out-dated,
insignificant, trivial,
useless, worthless,
meaningless
36 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE
Resource 2: Resources to vary intensity
40
Categorising resources to vary intensity
Language resource to adjust force Examples
Intensify
Intensifiers
that modify:
adjectives (effective) slightly, somewhat, highly, extremely, incredibly
adverbs (effectively) somewhat, fairly, quite, rather, very, highly
verbs (reduced) a little, slightly, somewhat, greatly, markedly
Comparatives and superlatives less, least, more, most (eective); better, worse (solution)
Maximisers: highest intensity utterly, totally, thoroughly, absolutely, completely (safe); absolute,
total, complete, utter (legend)
Figurative/cultural expressions crystal (clear), ice (cold), dirt (poor), abject (poverty)
Quantify
Measures amount
size
only a handful of, many, most, a majority of, countless (cases)
tiny, slight, small, large, vast, huge, massive (concern)
Scales space
time
local, distant, global, sparse, wide-spread, all pervasive (impact)
recent, long-standing, short-term, long-lasting (problem)
Language resource to adjust focus Examples
Sharpeners sharpen/reinforce
the boundary
real, true, genuine (friend); exact (replica); typical (teenager); iconic
(Renaissance painter)
Softeners soften/blur the
boundaries
kind of, sort of, bordering on (eg mad); -ish sux (eg biggish);
(eg a hero) of sorts, of a kind; about (eg 3 years ago)
Other resources include:
• repetition, eg Hide. HIDE!; long ago and not so long ago; he felt angry, really angry
• rhetorical questions
• comment adverbs, eg Obviously, Overall, Unfortunately
• punctuation – exclamation marks
• font choices, eg size, colour, capitalisation, bold, underline, highlight.
40
Martin J & White P, 2005:137–152.
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE | 37
Resource 3: Modality resources
41
Modal resources expressing probability/certainty
Modal auxiliaries
will, must, could, might, may
• That must be the milkman.
• It could be Jill.
Adverbs
perhaps, maybe, possibly, probably, surely, certainly,
definitely
• It’s possibly the best in the world.
• It’s definitely the best in the world.
Mental and saying processes (verbs)
know, think, believe, indicates, suggests, say, claim
• I think it’s the best.
• I believe you’re right.
• Scientists claim that the universe is continuing
to expand.
Adjectives
certain, sure, positive, uncertain, impossible, possible
• I am certain that it is the best.
• It is a possible outcome.
Nouns (nominalisations)
possibility, certainty, probability, risk, chance,
likelihood
• There is a chance of rain.
• There is a strong possibility of hail.
• The risk of damage is high.
Modal resources expressing frequency/usualness
Adverbs
always, usually, typically, often, sometimes, seldom,
rarely, never
• I always shop there.
• I never shop there.
Adjectives
frequent, common, usual, typical, infrequent,
unusual, rare
• It’s a common sight.
• It’s an unusual sight.
Nouns (nominalisations)
tendency, frequency, rarity
• Fatal accidents have decreased in frequency.
• They are a rarity these days.
Modal resources expressing obligation
Modal auxiliaries
will, must, should, ought to, have to
• I should go and help.
• We ought to think more carefully.
Adverbs and prepositional phrases
necessarily, compulsorily, at all cost
• It must be stopped at all costs.
• It’s not necessarily the case.
Saying and relating processes (verbs)
invited, suggested, commanded, compelled,
demanded, necessitated, required
• They demanded we finish immediately.
• It required a change in procedure.
Adjectives
compulsory, obligatory, necessary, optional
• It was a compulsory test.
• Salt is a necessary ingredient.
Nouns (nominalisations)
obligation, requirement, expectation, demand,
compulsion, option
• There is an expectation that we will attend.
• It is a requirement of the job.
41
Within each category, eg probability, forms are listed in order of development: most spoken-like at top (modal auxiliaries)
to most written-like at bottom (nominalisation).
38 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE
Resource 4: Characters from Charlotte’s Web
Wilbur (the pig)
He gave a jump in the air, ran
a few steps, stopped, looked
all around, snied the smells
of afternoon … (p.22)
‘There’s a lot of things Wilbur
doesn’t know about life,’ she
(the goose) thought. He’s really
a very innocent little pig. He
doesn’t even know what’s
going to happen to him around
Christmastime …’ (p.44)
Wilbur scrambled to the top
of the manure pile … hesitated
a moment, then jumped out into
the air … he landed with a thump.
‘I think I’ll try again,’ said Wilbur
cheerfully. (p.59)
Wilbur stood in the trough,
drooling with hunger. He gulped
and sucked, and sucked and
gulped, anxious to get everything
at once … Wilbur ate heartily. (p.76)
He planned to leave half a noodle
and a few drops of milk for
Templeton. (p.76)
What does this tell us about
Wilbur?
Charlotte (the spider)
She had eight legs, and she was
waving one of them at Wilbur in
friendly greeting. (p.39)
‘I have to get my own living. I live
by my wits. Have to be sharp and
clever, lest I go hungry. I have to
think things out, catch what I can,
take what comes.’ (p.43)
Underneath her rather bold and
cruel exterior, she had a kind
heart, and she was to prove loyal
and true to the very end. (p.44)
Day after day the spider waited,
head-down, for an idea to come
to her. Hour by hour she sat
motionless, deep in thought.
Having promised Wilbur that
she would save his life, she was
determined to keep her promise.
(p.68)
The spider … gazed aectionately
at him. (p.69)
What does this tell us about
Charlotte?
Templeton (the rat)
And Templeton, the rat, crept
stealthily along the wall … was
a crafty rat … the tunnel was an
example of his skill and cunning.
(p.33)
Templeton’s teeth scraped loudly
against the wood and made quite
a racket. ‘That crazy rat!’ thought
Wilbur. ‘Why does he have to stay
up all night, grinding his clashers
and destroying people’s property?’
(p.36)
… his little round beady eyes fixed
on the goose. Both the goose
and the gander were worried
about Templeton … The rat
had no morals, no conscience,
no decency, no milk of rodent
kindness … no friendliness, no
anything. He would kill a gosling
if he could get away with it. (p.48)
He glanced at Fern, then crept
cautiously towards the goose,
keeping close to the wall. Everyone
watched him, for he was not well
liked, not trusted. (p.47)
‘… You know how he is – always
looking out for himself, never
thinking of the other fellow.’ (p.89)
What does this tell us about
Templeton?
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE | 39
Resource 5: Analysing evaluative language
42
(Refugee Boy
43
)
Categories and probe questions
Examples (with intensifiers)
Alem, father and other refugees Non-refugees
Feelings + feels good - feels bad + feels good - feels bad
Happiness: Does it convey
happiness or unhappiness?
a lot happier
Security: Does it convey security
or insecurity?
eyes dropped;
feeling humiliated;
all with heads
hanging down,
looking humiliated;
the humiliation on
his father’s face;
shuffled
Satisfaction: Does it convey
satisfaction or dissatisfaction?
proud felt angry, felt really
angry, silently shake
his head in disgust
many other
cashiers were
sitting filing
their nails or
combing their
hair, waiting
for customers
Judgement + admire - criticise + admire - criticise
Are they
competent?
Are they unusual
in any way?
one of Bosnia’s
most promising
architects
as if they were
exhibition pieces
Are they
capable?
qualified, earned
every penny he had;
doctors, lawyers,
mathematicians,
airline pilot
reduced to what
amounted to living
off aid
Are they
dependable?
Are they
morally and
legally sound?
Are they good?
Are they honest?
Modality high medium low
Probability How certain? can’t, cannot may have not,
wondered, could
seemed to be
Obligation How obligated? have to
Frequency How often/
usual?
always
42
Analysis framework adapted from Humphrey, Droga & Feez 2012:102.
43
Zephaniah B (2001) Refugee Boy, Bloomsbury Publishing
40 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE
Resource 6: Varying intensity in an argument
Everyone loves pets, dogs, cats, birds and fish. They’re always giving us
warm, loving feelings. I know without any doubt, that any and every
household should own a pet.
Pets are amazing distractions and companions for anyone suering from
mental health issues. Pets can be great company, but they do more for us
than we might initially think. One in every four people will suer from some
form of mental health condition at some point in their lives. Dogs, cats and
other much-loved pets can help reduce stress levels, anxiety, depression
and loneliness.
Even if you don’t suer from mental health issues, pets can still make your
life better. Research has shown that pets can help slow down our heart rate,
relieve muscle tension and decrease blood pressure. It’s crystal clear to see
that there are countless mental benefits of having a pet.
Too many people say that pets are expensive to adopt or buy and look
after, but they’re definitely not. Many families these days don’t think they
have enough money to look after pets when really, they absolutely do! The
prices of adopting can range from under $100 to $800 depending on what
you adopt. On average pet owners will only spend $1,200 to $2,000 a year
on a pet. These prices can also be less, depending on the pet you own.
There are countless pets out there that can suit any family’s budget.
It’s undeniable to see that everyone should own a pet.
Key
Pink = varying
intensity
Purple =
modality
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE | 41
Resource 7: Analysing language to vary intensity in an
issue analysis
44
Analysing language choices that modulate intensity: force, focus and modality
Language resource Examples from text
Force
Graded core words for value critical, significant, importance
Intensifiers still
Comparatives and superlatives biggest, lower (socio-economic), greater (equity)
Figurative/cultural expressions vigorous (debate), strong support, in strife, funding injection, boost
Maximisers N/A
Measures amount, size some, greater (funding), a majority of, increasing (demand), the millions,
lack of, less (regard)
Scales time
space
recent, long-term, future, persists, currently
low-participation, high-participation, national, ‘whole-of-sport’
Focus
Sharpeners elite, grassroots
Softeners to a certain extent, at least to a degree
Other rhetorical
question
Shouldn't the Australian government prioritise funding for grassroots sports
in contrast to the millions that have been spent ensuring victory in the 2012
London Olympics?
comment adverb unfortunately
Modality continuum
high
low
Frequency always
Probability to secure, ensuring,
guarantees, evident
has been described as suggests, appears that
Obligation should, requires, a need recommends
44
Based on Sentence structure Resource 4: Model text: PE issues analysis.
42 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE
Resource 8: Analysing evaluative language
45
in a discussion
46
Categories and probe questions Examples (with intensifiers)
Feelings + feels good - feels bad
Happiness: Does it convey happiness or unhappiness? leisure time with friends,
enjoyment, delight,
friendly rivalry
Security: Does it convey security or insecurity? safe concerns, fear, worry,
anxious
Satisfaction: Does it convey satisfaction or dissatisfaction?
Judgement + admire/praise - criticise/rebuke
Are they competent?
Are they unusual in any way?
Are they capable?
Are they dependable?
concentration,
perseverance, trying
to better and outdo,
motivated, more
responsible, better
hand-eye coordination
and reflex responses,
perform better, higher
levels of concentration
and perseverance,
increased resilience
concerns about health
and habits; unhealthy
addiction; increased
sedentary lifestyle;
hours spent in front
of screens; physical
problems particularly
related to neck, back
and eyes; problems
interacting socially
Are they morally and
legally sound?
Are they morally good/bad?
Are they honest/dishonest?
moderation violence, without
appropriate supervision
and limits
Evaluation/appreciation + positive - negative
Reaction How do people react to it?
Composition Is it well constructed? most favourable aspect,
appropriate content
exposure to violence,
level of violence
Valuation Is it worthwhile/significant? benefits, positives,
development of skills
and attributes, social
benefits, beneficial,
increased development
in several key areas,
beneficial
risks, spend a deal of
time and money, to
the point of unhealthy
addiction, missing out
on benefits of physical
exercise and fresh
air, negative impact,
harmful, excessive use
of time and money
Modality continuum
high
low
Probability How certain is it? has shown, it is apparent
that
can, can be, appear to,
appears to be
How certain is cause-eect? leads to
Frequency How often or usual is it? often, regularly, never,
rarely, regular, many
some
Obligation How obligated are we/they? should
45
Analysis framework adapted from Humphrey, Droga & Feez (2012:102).
46
In reference to Cohesive devices Resource 8: Discussion/argument: Should children play computer games?
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE | 43
Resource 9: The impact of women on 19th century
Australia
47
The ‘First Fleet’ landed in what would one day be called Australia with 191 women aboard.
These women and those who followed them were to have a great impact on Australian
society. Their contributions were significant in establishing the social and economic welfare
of the emerging nation and also influenced the development of an Australian identity.
One significant area influenced by women was the social welfare of the early colonial
society. Caroline Chisholm is an example of a woman who worked tirelessly to improve
conditions for women. In the early 1900s, women were greatly outnumbered by men in
Australia. As a result, many unmarried women in England were given financial incentives to
immigrate. However, little thought was given to what to do with them once they arrived.
Consequently, many suffered homelessness and unemployment. Caroline Chisholm
found jobs for female passengers, set up an immigrant’s home and lobbied governments.
Because of her actions, those with influence in Australian society took notice and began to
make provisions for the care and settlement of unmarried immigrant women.
Women also made important contributions in business and establishing the early economy.
At a time when it was considered ‘unladylike’ for a woman to be in commerce, women
such as Elizabeth Macarthur and Mary Reibey proved them wrong. Both women rose to
the challenge when necessity called. In Elizabeth’s case, her husband’s long absences and
lack of trust in others ensured that she alone would have to administer the vast Macarthur
farms, which were pivotal in establishing Australia’s wool industry. The success with which
she did this resulted in her being admired and envied by many businessmen. Mary Reibey’s
energy and drive helped her overcome her convict origins and, after her husband’s death
leaving her with seven children, she took over the management of his properties and
businesses. She too made a big impact in the field of commerce and her business ability
led to great wealth and social standing.
The qualities displayed by many women in the 19th century also helped to create an
Australian cultural identity. In an era dominated by men and their opinions, many women
fought for and attained recognition and status in their own right. Their special qualities of
toughness, practicality, resourcefulness and perseverance, combined with compassion
and caring, is reflected in women from many dierent backgrounds and fields. Margaret
Catchpole epitomized all of these qualities. Her sense of adventure, determination and
perhaps romance led to her notoriety as a horse-thief but later brought her respect and
admiration. These qualities, together with compassion and caring, enabled her to turn
selflessly to the roles of midwife and nurse until, after assisting influenza victims, she too
died. Her character and detailed chronicling of events have enriched our understanding
of this period of history and helped form our identity as a nation.
In conclusion, it is clear that the women of 19th century Australia played a great part in
building the country. The influence of women can be seen in many areas, including social
welfare, health and education, business, and commerce. In addition, the cultural identity
of Australians has been greatly shaped by the qualities displayed by women during this
difficult period.
47
Adapted from National Equity Program for Schools (1995).
The Department for Education requests attribution as:
South Australian Department for Education | APRIL 2021
Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP)
TARGETED STRATEGIES TO ACCELERATE SAE PROFICIENCY
REFERENCES
Beck IL, McKeown MG & Kucan L (2013) Bringing
words to life: robust vocabulary instruction (2nd ed),
Guilford Press: New York
Callow J (2011) ‘When image and text meet: teaching
with visual and multimodal texts’, PETAA Paper 181,
Primary English Teaching Association (PETAA): Newtown
NSW, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Callow2011
(accessed November 2020)
Christie F, Gray P, Martin J, Macken M, Gray B &
Rothery J (1992) Exploring explanations: teachers
book, Levels 1–4, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich:
Sydney, available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/Christie1992
semiotics (accessed November 2020)
Con C (2006) Historical discourse: the language
of time, cause and evaluation, Continuum: London
Department for Education and Child Development
(DECD) (2016) ‘Vocabulary’, Best Advice, available at
http://TLinSA.2.vu/Big6vocab
Department for Education and Child Development
(DECD) (2018a) DECD Literacy and numeracy first:
primary years focus, Government of South Australia:
Adelaide, available at http://tiny.cc/LitNumFirst
Department for Education (2018b) ‘Literacy primary
school: stretch’, Guidebook, Adelaide: Government of
South Australia, available at http://tiny.cc/Guidebooks
Derewianka B (2011) A new grammar companion for
teachers, e:lit (now PETAA): Sydney
Derewianka B (2020) Exploring how texts work (2nd
edn), Primary English Teaching Association Australia
(PETAA): Newtown NSW
Derewianka B & Jones P (2016) Teaching language in
context (2nd edn), Oxford University Press: Melbourne
Duke N, Pearson PD, Strachan S & Billman K (2011)
‘Essential elements of fostering and teaching reading
comprehension’ in SJ Samuels & AE Farstrup (eds)
What research has to say about reading instruction,
International Reading Association, available at
http://TLinSA.2.vu/Duke2011RdgComp (accessed
November 2020)
Dutton J, D’Warte J, Rossbridge J & Rushton K (2018)
Tell me your story: confirming identity and engaging
writers in the middle years, Primary English Teaching
Association Australia (PETAA): Newtown NSW
EAL (2016) ‘What is translanguaging?’ EAL Journal,
available at http://TLinSA.2.vu/translanguaging
(accessed November 2020)
Exley B & Kirven L (2013) Playing with grammar in the
early years: learning about language in the Australian
Curriculum: English, Norwood SA: Australian Literacy
Educators Association
Exley B, Kirven L & Mantei J (2015) Exploring
with grammar in the primary years, Norwood SA:
Australian Literacy Educators Association
Fisher D, Frey N, Hattie J & Thayre M (2017) Teaching
literacy in the visible learning classroom, Corwin:
California
Gibbons P (1991) Learning to learn in a second
language, Primary English Teaching Association
Australia (PETAA): Newtown NSW
Halliday M & Matthiessen C (2004) An introduction
to functional grammar (3rd edn), Hodder Education
Publishers: London
Hassen R (2016) ‘Culture-specific semiotic politeness
norms in the multicultural society of Ethiopia’ in Arts
and Social Sciences Journal, 7(1), available at http://
TLinSA.2.vu/Hassen2016 (accessed November 2020)
Heugh K, French, M, Armitage J, Taylor-Leech K,
Billinghurst N & Ollerhead S (2019) Using multilingual
approaches: moving from theory to practice – a
resource book of strategies, activities and projects for
the classroom, London: British Council available at
http://TLinSA.2.vu/Project8ProcedureTexts (accessed
October 2020)
Humphrey S, Droga L & Feez S (2012) Grammar
and meaning, Primary English Teaching Association
(PETAA): Newtown NSW
2 | Learning English: Achievement and Proficiency (LEAP) | STRATEGIES REFERENCES
Humphrey S, Love K & Droga L (2011) Working
grammar: an introduction for secondary English
teachers, Port Melbourne Victoria: Pearson Australia
Martin J (2000) ‘Beyond Exchange: APPRAISAL
systems in English’ in S Hunston and G Thompson
(eds) Evaluation in text: authorial stance and the
construction of discourse, available at http://TLinSA.
2.vu/Martin2000Appraisal (accessed December 2020)
Martin J & White P (2005) The language of evaluation:
appraisal in English, New York: Palgrave Macmillan,
pp.137—152
Myhill D (2018) ‘Writing art: metalinguistic modelling
to support writing development’, Keynote address
AATE/ALEA conference, Perth 12 July
Myhill D, Jones S, Watson A & Lines H (2016) Essential
primary grammar, Open University Press: New York
Rossbridge J & Rushton K (2010) Conversations about
text: teaching grammar using literary texts, Newtown
NSW: e:lit (now PETAA)
Rossbridge J & Rushton K (2014) ‘The critical
conversation about text: joint construction’, PETAA
Paper 196, Primary English Teaching Association
(PETAA): Newtown NSW, available at http://TLinSA.
2.vu/PETAA196 (accessed November 2020)
Rossbridge J & Rushton K (2015) Put it in writing:
context, text and language, Primary English Teaching
Association (PETAA): Newtown NSW
Rothery J (1994) ‘Exploring literacy in school English’,
Write it right: resources for literacy and learning
series, Sydney: Metropolitan East Disadvantaged
Schools Program, (reprinted Sydney: NSW AMES 2007)
State Government of Victoria (2019) ‘Using the
teaching and learning cycle with EAL/D learners’,
Literacy Teaching Toolkit, available at http://TLinSA.
2.vu/VicTeachLearnCycle (accessed November 2020)
White B & Hamilton A (2013) ‘Stolen generations’
in Composing written texts across the Australian
Curriculum F–6, Catholic Education South Australia,
pp.148–152
