commercial nuisance wild animal control operator

COMMERCIAL NUISANCE WILD ANIMAL CONTROL OPERATOR

CERTIFICATION MANUAL

january 2024

PUB 5510 R1223

Ready to take the test?

The Commercial Nuisance Wild Animal Control Operator license is considered

a specialty license. Information regarding this license, including the test,

study materials, and application can be found at wildohio.gov.

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

CHAPTER 1 – Introduction ............................................................................4

CHAPTER 2 – General Nuisance Wild Animal Laws .............................. 5

CHAPTER 3 – Species Specic Limitations .............................................. 7

• Bats ..................................................................................... 7

• Black Bear ........................................................................7

• Crows .................................................................................7

• Deer ....................................................................................7

• Ducks ................................................................................. 7

• Geese ................................................................................. 7

• Migratory Birds ...............................................................7

• Swans.................................................................................7

• Wild Turkey ...................................................................... 7

• Woodchuck .....................................................................7

• Endangered & Threatened Species .........................7

CHAPTER 4 – Species Information and Control Techniques .............8

• Bats ..................................................................................... 9

• Beaver ................................................................................11

• Canada Goose ................................................................12

• Chipmunks and Small Mammals ............................13

(Moles, Shrews, Mice, Rats, and Voles)

• Coyote ............................................................................... 14

• Fox ......................................................................................15

• Muskrat ............................................................................. 16

• Opossum .......................................................................... 17

• Rabbits ..............................................................................18

• Raccoon ............................................................................ 19

• Skunk ................................................................................. 20

• Snakes ...............................................................................21

• Squirrels ............................................................................22

• Woodchuck .....................................................................23

CHAPTER 5 – Wildlife Diseases ................................................................... 24

CHAPTER 6 – Ethics ........................................................................................30

COMMERCIAL NUISANCE WILD ANIMAL CONTROL OPERATOR

CERTIFICATION MANUAL

Chapter 1 – Introduction

This manual is designed to provide general guidance for commercial nuisance wild animal control opera-

tors in Ohio. The intent of the manual is not to provide comprehensive coverage of all laws, methods, and

techniques for nuisance animal control. However, the manual provides relevant information regarding

laws, legal methods of take, species’ life histories, ethical considerations, and wildlife diseases.

DEFINITIONS

Commercial nuisance wild animal control operator: An individual or business that provides nuisance wild

animal removal or control services for hire to the owner, the operator, or an authorized agent of a prop-

erty or a structure.

Nuisance wild animal: A wild animal that interferes with the use or enjoyment of property, is causing a

threat to public safety, or may cause damage or harm to a structure, property, or person.

On-site supervision: Staying near the person being supervised to allow for uninterrupted, unaided visual

and auditory communications.

LICENSING

No person shall provide nuisance wild animal removal or control services for hire without obtaining a

license from the chief of the Division of Wildlife (Ohio Revised Code [O.R.C.] § 1531.40).

If you are providing nuisance wild animal removal or control services and you are charging a fee or an-

other form of compensation, you must have a valid commercial nuisance wild animal control operator

License (here forward, license), or work for someone possessing a license.

An individual who is employed by the state, a county, or a municipal corporation and who performs nui-

sance wild animal removal or control services on land that is owned by the state, county, federal govern-

ment, or municipal corporation as part of the individual’s employment is exempt from obtaining a license.

The fee for obtaining a commercial nuisance wild animal control operator license is $40.00 per year. The

license expires annually on the last day of February and may be renewed.

CERTIFICATION

Certication is required for a commercial nuisance wild animal control operator and any individual who is

working on behalf of an operator who is engaged in activities that are part of or related to the removal or

control of nuisance wild animals, including setting or maintaining traps. However, employees under the

direct on-site supervision of a licensed operator are exempt from certication.

Certication requires passing an online test (80 percent or greater) and is valid for three years from the

date of a passing grade.

PENALTIES

A violation of a nuisance wild animal control law or rule in Ohio may result in criminal charges. Violations

are classied as misdemeanors, depending on the oense, which may result in a ne or jail time. The

ODNR Division of Wildlife may suspend or revoke any nuisance control license if the operator is convicted

of a violation.

OTHER LAWS AND PERMITS

Other state, local, and federal laws, permits, or rules may be applicable to nuisance wild animal control

operators. Therefore, it is the operator’s responsibility to be aware of and become familiar with all perti-

nent laws (such as pesticide application, migratory bird control, Migratory Bird Treaty Act, federal Endan-

gered Species Act.)

Pursuant to O.R.C. § 1533.171, all nuisance wild animal control operators, trappers, and hunters are liable

if injury to a person or property results from a negligent, careless, or reckless act of that person while in

the process of killing or taking a wild animal.

Chapter 2 – General Nuisance Wild Animal Laws

This chapter outlines laws and regulations that may be relevant to nuisance wild animal control operators. For relevant statuto-

ry language refer to O.R.C. § 1531.40 and Ohio Administrative Code (O.A.C) 1501.31-15-03 (http://codes.ohio.gov).

MARKING TRAPS, SNARES, OR OTHER DEVICES

All traps, snares, or other unattended devices must always be tagged with one of the following:

Your name and address of the user

Your commercial nuisance wild animal control operator license number

Your Wild Ohio customer ID number

Tags must be legible, in the English language, and must be waterproof.

Traps or devices used for the following animals are not required to be marked:

CHECKING TRAPS

Traps, snares, or other devices used to take or capture nuisance wild animals may be monitored with an operational electronic

device or by personal observation by the person setting the trap or a designated agent. Traps must be checked according to

the following:

Exempt from checking Every 72 hours Every calendar day

Traps set for: Traps set under ice or water for: Traps, snares or other devices set for:

Mice Beaver

All other wild animals not listed in this chart

Nuisance rats River otter

Moles Muskrat

Shrews  

Voles  

ALLOWABLE TRAPS AND SIZES

Commercial nuisance wild animal control operators shall adhere to the following trap size restrictions:

Trap Type

For use

on land:

submerged or set to function in a lethal

manner in water:

Bodygripping

6 inches or smaller (ex-

cept with woodchuck)

7 inches or smaller (except when com-

pletely submerged)

Foothold (both dogless and with dog) 6 inches or smaller* Not applicable

No spring-assisted snare 15 inches or smaller 15 inches or smaller

Spring-assisted snare 5 inches or smaller 8 inches or smaller

HOW TO MEASURE A TRAP

For the purposes commercial nuisance wild animal control operator license, all traps shall be measured in the open set position,

and measured from the inside of the main trap jaws as manufactured, thus shall not include jaw modications or add-ons.

• MOLES

• SHREWS

• VOLES

• HOUSE MOUSE 

MUS MUSCULUS

• NORWAY RAT 

RATTUS NORVEGICUS

• ROOF RAT 

RAT TUS RATTUS

Bodygripping traps are measured from the

inside of the main jaw at the trigger assem-

bly to the inside of the opposing jaw across

the entrance window.

Foothold traps are measured perpendicular to

the frame at the widest location parallel with

the dog. Dogless foothold traps are measured

perpendicular to the frame at the widest loca-

tion and parallel with the pan shank.

Snares are measured at the diameter of the

loop.

* 5 5/8 inch or smaller- not more than 6 inches if they fall within the following criteria:

• minimum of 5/16 inch gripping surface

• minimum of 3 swiveling points

POSSESSION OF NUISANCE WILD ANIMALS

It is unlawful to possess any live wild animal for more than four days

trapped or taken under the authority of a commercial nuisance wild

animal control operator’s license.

SELLING NUISANCE WILD ANIMALS

It is unlawful to sell any nuisance wild animals trapped or taken under

the authority of a commercial nuisance wild animal control operator

license except:

Carcasses or parts, except hides, of:

Hides and tails of red, gray, and fox squirrels trapped or taken under

the authority of a commercial nuisance wild animal control operator

license may be sold at any time.

Hides of furbearing animals taken during the open season under the

authority of a commercial nuisance wild animal control operator li-

cense may be held and sold from the rst day of the respective open

season through June 15 of the following year.

DISPOSITION OF NUISANCE WILD ANIMALS

It is important to check local regulations for acceptable methods of car-

cass disposal.

A commercial nuisance wild animal control operator License requires

the following species to be euthanized or released on-site (if live

trapped) to reduce the issue of moving specic problem individual

animals from one location to another, and to minimize the spread of

disease:

Live trapped animals which may be released outside of city limits (with

permission of the landowner where the release takes place), or may be

euthanized include:

Unless listed above, live-trapped nuisance wild animals must be re-

leased outside of city limits and with the permission of the landown-

er where the release takes place. Refer to Chapter 3 for information on

bats. Under some conditions however, it is impossible to live trap some

animals. In these situations, written permission from the ODNR Division

of Wildlife to use lethal means of capture or taking is required. No such

written permission is required to kill or use lethal means of control for

the following nuisance wild animals:

INJURED NUISANCE WILD ANIMALS

It shall be unlawful to fail to euthanize nuisance wild animals trapped

or taken whose injuries aect normal biological or physiological func-

tions. This does not apply to migratory birds, bats, or threatened or en-

dangered species. An example would be an animal with a badly broken

or severed leg, broken jaw, severe injury to an eye, etc. Call your local

wildlife ocer or the wildlife district oce with questions.

ADDITIONAL TRAPPING RESTRICTIONS

Traps with teeth are illegal for taking a nuisance wild animal, except

traps designed by the manufacturer for mice, moles, or rats.

Snares shall be constructed with only multi-or single- strand steel cable.

All snares, except those set for woodchucks, must have a relaxing lock

and a stop to prevent the opening of the snare from closing to a diam-

eter of less than 2½ inches or a relaxing lock system with a breaking

point of not greater than 350 pounds. Snares shall not be attached to a

drag. Spring-loaded snares, spring-assisted snares, or a snare with a me-

chanical device to assist the snare in capturing or closing around a nui-

sance wild animal may only be used by a licensed commercial nuisance

wild animal control operator and only to take nuisance wild animals.

Flesh bait shall not be used unless it is completely covered and con-

cealed, or unless the bait is encapsulated by the trap.

Dogs shall not be used to take a raccoon, opossum, skunk or fox outside

of a structure during the closed season. The use of dogs to control all

other nuisance wild animals does require a commercial nuisance wild

animal control operator license.

Toxicants and chemical substances may be used for control of nuisance

wild animals. It is unlawful to use contraceptive chemicals except to

control the population of common pigeons. It shall be unlawful to use

a toxicant or chemical substance for the taking or control of a nuisance

wild animal contrary to or in violation of instructions on the label or

manufacturer recommendations (The label is the law). A licensed com-

mercial nuisance wild animal control operator must possess the appro-

priate pesticide applicators license in the appropriate category to use

a toxicant or chemical substance for the taking or control of a nuisance

wild animal. The Ohio Department of Agriculture issues a pesticide ap-

plicator’s license. Additional information on toxicants can be found in

Chapter 4.

Firearms or air guns may be used to take nuisance wild animals in some

situations. It is lawful for a licensed commercial nuisance wild animal

control operator to use a gun equipped with a silencer or muer for the

control of nuisance wild animals. Any applicable federal, state, or local

statutes or restrictions must also be followed.

It is the responsibility of the operator to be knowledgeable of and ad-

here to all applicable rearms laws, and to use them in a safe manner.

As mentioned in Chapter 1, commercial nuisance wild animal control

operators may be liable for the negligent use of a rearm or other im-

plement to take a nuisance wild animal that results in damage to per-

sons or property.

• RACCOON

• OPOSSUM

• BEAVER

• MUSKRAT

• RED OR GRAY FOX

• COYOTE

• SKUNK

• WOODCHUCK

• MINK

• RACCOON

• SKUNK

• BEAVER

• COYOTE

• RED FOX OPOSSUM

• SQUIRRELS 

RED, GRAY, FOX,

AND FLYING



• CHIPMUNK

• WOODCHUCK

• MOLES

• VOLES

• SHREWS

• MICE

• RATS 

EXCEPT WOOD RATS

• RABBIT

• MINK

• MUSKRAT

• BEAVER

• CHIPMUNK

• MICE EXCEPT

EASTERN HARVEST

MOUSE



• SHREWS

• VOLES

• MOLES

• MUSKRAT

• OPOSSUM

• RACCOON

• RATS 

EXCEPT

WOOD RATS



• SQUIRRELS 

RED,

GRAY, FOX, AND

FLYING



• SKUNK

• WOODCHUCK

• COYOTE

• RED

• FOX

• MINK

• THIRTEEN

LINED GROUND

SQUIRREL

• FERAL SWINE

• RABBIT

• WEASEL

BATS

It shall be unlawful to euthanize or kill any bat, except in situations

where there is a direct human health risk such as a bite or potential

exposure to rabies. Any bat euthanized must be reported to the lo-

cal health department by the aected landowner or their designated

agent by the end of the next business day. If a person has been bit by a

bat or if exposure is possible, the health department must be contacted

for guidance on the disposition of the animal.

Precautions must be taken to ensure that no federally protected spe-

cies are harmed or harassed unless potential exposure to rabies has

occurred. Therefore, it is recommended to follow guidance provided in

Chapter 4.

BLACK BEAR

Black bear which are causing damage or have become a nuisance may

be captured or killed by a licensed commercial nuisance wild animal

control operator, only after the landowner or agent of the landowner

has received a permit from the chief of the ODNR Division of Wildlife.

Stipulations may apply.

CROWS

It is lawful for any person to take crows during the closed season if the

crows are found committing or about to commit depredations upon

ornamental or shade trees, agricultural crops, livestock, or wildlife, or

when concentrated in such numbers and manner as to constitute a

health hazard or other nuisance.

However, it is unlawful to take or attempt to take nuisance crows out-

side of the open season with the aid or assistance of any calls, articially

placed bait, or decoys.

WHITE-TAILED DEER

White-tailed deer which are causing damage or have become a nui-

sance may be captured or killed by a licensed commercial nuisance

wild animal control operator , only after the landowner or agent of the

landowner has received a permit from the chief of the ODNR Division

of Wildlife.

The ODNR Division of Wildlife has an online application and permitting

system for deer damage permits. Landowners with current, ongoing

damage issues can submit an application for a deer damage permit at

wildohio.gov. Stipulations may apply.

All nuisance white-tailed deer immobilized with chemicals or drugs

shall be euthanized.

DUCKS

Ducks, including their nest and eggs, are protected under the Migra-

tory Bird Treaty Act. For removal of nests, eggs, or ducks, the landowner

must contact USDA Wildlife Services for a permit at 1-866-4USDAWS (1-

866-487-3297).

FERAL SWINE

It shall be unlawful to fail to euthanize a trapped nuisance feral swine at

the trap location. Feral swine are a non-native Ohio species. It is illegal

to transport a trapped feral swine in Ohio. It is legal to live trap feral

swine at any time, provided the animal is immediately euthanized at

the trap location.

GEESE

From March 11 through August 31, Canada geese which are causing

damage or have become a nuisance may be captured or taken by li-

censed commercial wild animal control operators, landowners, or

agents of the landowner, only after the landowner has received a per-

mit from the chief of the ODNR Division of Wildlife. Stipulations may

apply.

The ODNR Division of Wildlife has an online complaint and permitting

system for Canada goose damage permits. Landowners can le goose

complaints at wildohio.gov.

From September 1 through March 10, Canada geese which are caus-

ing damage or have become a nuisance may be captured or taken by

licensed commercial wild animal control operators, landowners, or

agents of the landowner, only after the landowner has received a per-

mit from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). Information on ob-

taining this permit can be found below.

MIGRATORY BIRDS

There are times when migratory birds are responsible for damage to

property or become a nuisance. European starlings, English sparrows,

and common pigeons (other than homing pigeons) are not considered

migratory birds and may be killed at any time and their nests or eggs

may also be destroyed at any time. They may not however, be pos-

sessed except under a collection permit.

Unless specied below, migratory birds are protected under the Mi-

gratory Bird Treaty Act. The Migratory Bird Treaty Act is a treaty signed

between the United States, Japan, Canada, Russia, and Mexico that es-

tablishes protection for migratory birds, their eggs, and nests.

Removal of migratory birds, such as woodpeckers that are causing

damage, requires a depredation permit from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife

Services. USDA Wildlife Services facilitates the application of the depre-

dation permits. The landowner must contact the USDA Wildlife Services

at 1-866-4USDAWS (1-866-487-3297) to speak to a representative to de-

termine if a permit is needed.

Inactive nests of non-colonial migratory birds may be removed without

a federal permit.

MUTE SWANS

Mute swans may be captured or taken by licensed commercial nuisance

wild animal control operators, landowners, or agents of the landowner,

only after such landowner has received a permit from the chief of the

ODNR Division of Wildlife. Stipulations may apply.

WILD TURKEY

Wild turkey, which are causing damage or have become a nuisance may

be captured or killed by licensed commercial nuisance wild animal con-

trol operators or other persons, only after such landowner or agent of

the landowner has received a permit from the chief of the ODNR Divi-

sion of Wildlife. Stipulations may apply.

GROUNDHOGS (WOODCHUCKS)

Restrictions for nuisance groundhog trapping include:

ENDANGERED & THREATENED SPECIES

It is unlawful to capture or kill nuisance wild animals listed as state en-

dangered or threatened without a permit to do so issued by the chief

of the ODNR Division of Wildlife. For the most up-to-date list, go to wil-

dohio.gov. Caution must be taken so as not to injure or destroy any of

these species, including with pesticides or other lethal means of con-

trol.

Some species of wildlife listed as state endangered or threatened are

also federally listed, and all federal laws regarding those species must be

followed. Please contact the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for guidance.

Chapter 3 – Species Specific Limitations

• It is unlawful to use a bodygripping trap with a jaw spread greater than 7 inches across.

It is unlawful to set, use, or maintain a bodygripping trap to take groundhogs which is

set more than 3 feet from the hole, or structure the animal inhabits.

• It is unlawful to set, use, or maintain a bodygripping trap greater than 5 inches to take

a groundhog that does not have an enclosure or structure around the trap which pro-

hibits other animals from getting into the trap from the outside.

• It is unlawful for any person except licensed commercial nuisance wild animal control

operators to use snares without a relaxing lock for taking groundhogs.

Chapter 4 –Species Information and Control Techniques

This chapter will explain some of the methods for controlling common nuisance wild animals as well as provide information on their life history,

diseases, and laws pertaining to that species. It does not discuss all methods or all nuisance wild animals that may be encountered.

SPECIESSPECIFIC RECOMMENDED TRAP AND SNARE SIZES

Commonly encountered species of wild animals for nuisance animal control operators and the recommended trap sizes for those species. In

some cases, other sizes or trap types may prove to be more ecient.

Species/ taxa

Foothold

(inches)

Bodygripping (inches) Snare loop (inches) Live/cage Trap Encapsulated (dog proof)

Bats Not legal Not legal Not legal Not recommended Not legal

Beaver 5 - 6 (land), 8¼ (submerged)

7-12

9 – 10, 2 - 3

39 x 43 Suitcase

Not recommended

Canada Goose Not legal Not legal Not legal Not legal Not legal

Chipmunks/Rats Not recommended Rat sized snap traps Not recommended 16 x 5 x 5

Not recommended

Mice/shrews Not recommended Mouse snap trap Not recommended 10 x 3 x 3

Not recommended

Moles Not recommended

“NoMol, Out of Sight, Nash

Loop, spears, or similar”

Not recommended 11 x 3 ½ x 3 ½

Not recommended

Coyote 4 ½ - 6

Not recommended 10-12, 10 – 12

high 48 x 26 x 20

Not recommended

Red Fox 4 ½ -5 ½

Not recommended 6 - 8, 6 - 8

high 42 x 15 x 15

Not recommended

Gray Fox 4 5/16 - 4 ½

Not recommended 6 - 8, 6 – 8

high 32 x 10 x 13

Not recommended

Muskrat 3 ½ + (submerged)

4 ½ -5

3 ¾, 1 ½

high 24 x 6 x 6

Not recommended

Opossum 3 15/16 - 4 ½

4 ½ - 6

6, 2 - 3

high 32 x 10 x 13

1 ½- in. diameter, 2 1/8 - 2

7/8 in. trigger depth

Rabbits Not recommended Not legal Not recommended 24 x 7 x 7

Not recommended

Raccoon 3 ½ -4 5/8

6 (land), 7 (part sub-

merged)

6 – 8, 3 – 4

high 32 x 10 x 13

1 ½- in. diameter, 2 1/8 - 2

7/8 trigger depth

Skunk 3 ½ - 4 ½

6 (2) 4 - 6

24 x 7 x 7 up to 32 x

10 x 13

Not recommended

Squirrel (gray or

fox)

Not recommended 3 ½ - 4 ½

Not recommended 19 x 6 x 6

Not recommended

Squirrel (red) Not recommended Rat sized snap traps Not recommended 16 x 5 x 5

Not recommended

Squirrel (ying) Not recommended Rat sized snap traps Not recommended 16 x 5 x 5

Not recommended

Woodchuck No greater than 6 5-7

4 – 6, 2 -3

high 32x x10 x 13

Not recommended

OAC 1503:31-05-03

Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies Best Management Practices

Recommended by the Ohio State Trappers Association Snare Guide

Specic manufacturer’s recommendations

U.S. Geological Survey Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Group

OHIO NATIVE BAT SPECIES

There are 10 bat species commonly found in Ohio and they are all in-

sectivores, meaning they eat insects. Four species of bats found in Ohio

are state-endangered, including the federally endangered Indiana bat

and the northern long-eared bat. Since the appearance of white-nose

syndrome, bat populations have experienced declines of over 90%.

Population declines of some species that roost in buildings may be as

high as 96% to 99%. Bats are the only major predator of night-ying in-

sects, and they help farmers by saving them billions of dollars a year on

pest control. Bats are usually able to exist near human homes without

making their presence known.

LAWS PERTAINING TO BATS

While all of Ohio’s bat species are protected by law, the Division recog-

nizes there may be times when human health or safety is at risk. For

example, it is illegal to kill a bat for any reason unless a bite or poten-

tial exposure to rabies has occurred. Ohio Administrative Code (OAC)

1501:31-15-03 provides additional opportunities to address human/

wildlife coexistence issues, including the exclusion or eviction of un-

wanted bats from a man-made structure.

It is illegal: To use traps (including glue traps) to catch or kill bats; to use

chemicals, toxicants, or foggers to exclude or kill bats; to seal all entry/

exit points while bats are inside the structure; and to otherwise kill bats.

DISEASES OF CONCERN

WHEN HANDLING BATS

(See Chapter 5 for more

specic information regard-

ing diseases)

• Rabies

• Histoplasmosis

• White-nose syndrome

COMMON SITUATIONS EN-

COUNTERED

• Roosting in chimneys

• Flying around inside

home

• Roosting or colonizing

in attic

TECHNIQUES FOR

DEALING WITH BATS

Living Space: When trying to remove a bat in a living space, open a win-

dow or exterior door, and close interior doors, conning it to one room if

possible. The bat will leave as soon as it locates the exit. If the bat contin

ues to stay in the house, you may use a box, bucket or small jar over the

bat to capture. You should never handle the bat with bare hands, so wear

the thickest gloves you can nd, preferably leather gloves to use when

attempting to remove. Put on gloves. Use capture container and place it

over the bat when it lands, whether on the oor or wall. Then, slip a lid or

piece of cardboard under the box. Tape the cardboard to the container

to secure the bat inside. If the bat is unharmed and it is April 1- May 15 or

August 1- October 14 , take the capture container outside and place it up

against a tree so that the bat can crawl out onto the tree as bats cannot

y from the ground.

Exclusion: Removal of bat colonies or individuals roosting in buildings

may be dealt with a bat exclusion. A bat exclusion is dened as the act

of installing a device or materials to remove bats from a structure. If

• RED BAT  LASIURUS BOREALIS)

• INDIANA BAT  MYOTIS SODALIS)

• HOARY BAT  (LASIURUS CINEREUS)

• BIG BROWN BAT  EPTESICUS FUSCUS)

• EASTERN SMALLFOOTED BAT  MYOTIS LEIBII)

• LITTLE BROWN BAT  MYOTIS LUCIFUGUS)

• EVENING BAT  (NYCTICEIUS HUMERALIS)

• TRICOLORED BAT  PIPISTRELLUS SUBFLAVUS)

• NORTHERN LONGEARED BAT  (MYOTIS SEPTENTRIONALIS)

• SILVERHAIRED BAT  (LASIONYCTERIS NOCTIVAGANS)

• RAFINESQUE’S BIGEARED BAT  CORYNOHINUS RAFINESQUII)

LIFE HISTORY NOTES

Mating: Polygamous.

Peak Breeding Activity: August to October;

some will breed again in the spring.

Gestation: 40-90 days depending on species,

weather conditions, and nutritional availabil-

ity (delayed implantation).

Young are Born: Late May through July .

Litter Size: 1, but there can be large numbers

of young in a colony.

Number of Litters per Year: 1

Seasonal Patterns: While some migrate in

the winter, they can also be year around

residents; Some species will use dierent

roosting, hibernacula, and maternity sites.

Typical Foods: Insects

BATS

bats are entering the living space inside of a home (i.e., from attic ac-

cess into a bedroom), these interior routes may be sealed or blocked

at any time without a permit. However, unless otherwise approved by

the Division, exterior routes may not be sealed without rst installing

an exclusion device. The ideal periods for bat exclusion are between

April 1st through May 15th and August 1st through October 15th. The

only allowable method of bat removal is bat exclusion. Exclusion de-

vices or materials allow the one-way passage of bats out of a home or

structure. Installing materials that close secondary access points while

still allowing bats to enter and exit the structure through a main access

point is not considered bat exclusion. Exclusion devices must be left

in place for at least a week to be eective. Once all of the bats have

been excluded from the structure, the device may be removed, and the

entrance sealed within the same day to prevent bats from reentering.

Bats may not be intentionally killed or harmed unless human rabies ex-

posure is suspected.

Requesting Written Permission During Restricted Periods: Before apply-

ing for bat exclusion authorization from May 16th through July 31st,

the property owner or designee must:

• Inspect the structure for bats;

• Perform two bat watches at the structure from ½ hour before un-

til 1 hour after sunrise or from ½ hour before until ½ hour after

sunset within seven days.

• If ve or more bats are observed during the inspection or rst

bat watch, additional watches are not required. Exclusion is not

permitted without the Division’s authorization.

• If four or fewer bats are present or observed, bat exclusion can be

performed without the Division’s authorization.

The Division will consider immediate exclusion when human health

and safety are at risk or when nighttime temperatures exceed 40°F for

the full 10-day forecast during the October restricted dates. Applicants

will typically receive a response to their request within a few days but

no later than ten days after the Division receives it.

Property owners or their agents and Division licensed/certied nui-

sance wild animal control operators may apply for bat exclusion au-

thorization during the restricted periods. It is illegal for anyone who

is not a licensed commercial nuisance wild animal control operator to

receive compensation for wild animal control activities, including bat

exclusions.

Bats may not be killed or euthanized unless a bite or potential exposure

to rabies has occurred. Contact your doctor if rabies is suspected in a

bat or if a bite cannot be ruled out. There are two restricted periods for

bat exclusion in Ohio:

• From May 16th through July 31st, when 5 or more bats are present;

• From October 15th through March 31st, if any bats are present.

During these restricted periods, bats may only be excluded by rst ob-

taining written permission from the chief of the Division of Wildlife or

their designee. Written authorization will be considered when human

health and safety are at risk or when nighttime temperatures exceed

40°F for the full 10-day forecast during the October restricted dates

(see Requesting Written Permission During Restricted Periods below

for additional information). The spring/summer restricted period is in

place to protect bats and their ightless pups during the maternity pe-

riod. Exclusions performed during this time may cause undue deaths of

bats until pups can y (August). Not only could the exclusion result in

the death of pups, but frantic mothers attempting to get back to their

young often nd their way into living spaces. The fall/winter restricted

period is put in place to protect hibernating bats. Bats that exit struc-

tures when temperatures drop below freezing may die if they cannot

return to the same hibernaculum or shelter due to an exclusion device.

To apply for exclusion authorization, please complete and return a Bat

Exclusion Authorization Application (Please contact ODNR Division of

Wildlife customer service at 1-800-WILDLIFE (945-3543) or wildlife.bat-

exclusion@dnr.state.oh.us for more information).

When locating entry and exit areas, consider potential as well as active

points of access. It may also be possible to locate entry and exit areas by

standing in various locations of a darkened attic during daylight hours

and looking for light at the extreme parts of eaves, in layers of subroof-

ing, and below chimney ashings. Seal all gaps of ¼ x 1½ inches (0.6

x 3.8 cm) and openings 5/8 of an inch (1.6 cm) or larger. Often, there

are secondary access points that are not always used. These secondary

access points may be sealed in advance of sealing the primary access

point if you are waiting for pups to be ighted.

There are many commercially available one-way door devices that you

can install to allow the bats to leave the following night that will ex-

clude them from being able to get back in. You can also use screen and

tape to create your own one-way door. Put a square section of screen

just slightly larger than the hole they are using over it, and then tape

three sides leaving the bottom side open to allow the bats to squeeze

out. Be sure the screen is tight enough so that there is not a gap for

them to climb back in, but not too tight to keep them from being able

to get out. It is recommended that exclusion of colonies take place after

September 1, but before bats begin hibernation. Excluding bats during

the wrong time of year can lead to far greater problems for the home-

owner, including bats dying and creating an odor problem, or more

bats getting inside the living quarters seeking a way out.

Habitat modication: Installation of bat houses may help deter bats

from using a structure, but it must also be considered that it may attract

bats to the area as well. In dark areas such as attics, leaving lights on or

install lights to help repel bats. In areas where bats are roosting, such

as under sots and above doors, using a 45-degree piece of wood can

deter the bats from using that area.

LAWS PERTAINING TO BEAVER

Can be trapped or shot at any time if causing a nuisance. If trapped, can

NOT be relocated and must be euthanized.

DISEASES OF CONCERN WHEN HANDLING

(See Chapter 5 for more specic information regarding diseases)

• Tularemia

• Giardia

RECOMMENDED TRAP SIZES (all sizes in inches)

FOOTHOLD

BODY-

GRIPPING

SNARE LOOP

with HEIGHT

LIVE or

CAGE TRAP

5 - 6 (land)

5 – 8 1/4 (submerged)

7-12 9-10, 2-3

39 x 43

Suitcase

COMMON SITUATIONS ENCOUNTERED

• Cutting trees

• Plugging pipes

• Flooding an area

TECHNIQUES FOR DEALING WITH BEAVER

Trapping: It is recommended that traps set for beaver be used in a

lethal manner in either deeper water or with the aid of a drowning

set. The most eective sets are those placed in runs, places where the

beaver enters and exits the water, or at the entrance to a beaver lodge.

Place the trap as close to the den entrance as possible without restrict-

ing trap movement. Snares can be set for beavers on land and in water.

Shooting: Beavers are generally nocturnal. Shooting a beaver can be ef-

fective at night with proper lighting. Check local regulations before dis-

charging a rearm within a city or village. Extreme care must be taken

when shooting beaver to diminish the likelihood of ricocheting bullets

o the water surface.

Exclusion: It is dicult as well as cost prohibitive to exclude beavers

from ponds, lakes, or impoundments. Fencing of culverts, drain pipes,

or other structures can sometimes prevent damage, but fencing can

also promote damage, since it provides beavers with construction ma-

terial for dams. Protect valuable trees adjacent to waterways by encir-

cling them with hardware cloth, woven wire, or other metal barriers.

Construction of concrete spillways or other permanent structures may

reduce the impact of beavers.

Habitat modication:

Where feasible, elim-

inate food, trees, and

woody vegetation

that is adjacent to bea-

ver habitat. Continual

destruction of dams

and removal of dam

construction materials

daily will sometimes

cause a colony or in-

dividual beavers to

move to another site.

The use of a three-log

drain or a structural de-

vice such as wire mesh

culverts or T-culvert

guards will occasion-

ally cause beavers to

move to other areas.

Fencing around culvert

heads can also be constructed to allow beavers to build but still allow

water ow. The length of each side of the fence is normally at least twice

the diameter of the culvert. Installing this device can be the best solu-

tion for a large owage where the water ow is too great for a pipe sys-

tem or smaller owages where roads were built in oodplains. A oor

of fencing is usually laid rst to deter beaver burrowing.. A device for

controlling beaver impoundments and keeping blocked culverts open

is the Clemson beaver pond leveler. It is eective because the beavers

cannot detect the sound of falling or owing water as the pond or cul-

vert drains; therefore, they do not try to plug the pipe. Periodic reinva-

sions of suitable habitat can be expected to occur.

Frightening: Shooting of individuals or continued destruction of lodg-

es, bank dens, and dams, where legal, will occasionally move young

colonies out of an area.

Toxicants and fumigants: None registered.

Repellents: None registered.

LIFE HISTORY NOTES

Mating: Monogamous.

Peak Breeding Activity: January-February.

Gestation: 3-4 months.

Young are Born: April-June .

Litter Size: 1-8; average 3.

Number of Litters per Year: 1.

Seasonal Patterns: Year-around resident;

Active primarily at night however will be

out during the day as well.

Typical Foods: While they will eat or chew

almost any tree, they prefer poplar, aspen,

willow, birch, and maple.

BEAVER

(CASTOR CANADENSIS)

LAWS PERTAINING TO CANADA GEESE

There are no permits needed to harass Canada geese, as long as they

are not nesting. Permits for nests, eggs, shooting, or rounding up the

geese from March 15-August 31 require a permit from the ODNR Di-

vision of Wildlife. Permits for shooting from September 1-March 14 re-

quire a permit facilitated by the U.S. Department of Agriculture Wildlife

Services.

*The ODNR Division of Wildlife utilizes an online goose complaint and permitting system.

Landowners can le complaints at wildohio.gov or call the nearest district oce. A com-

plaint must be led before any permits can be issued.

DISEASES OF CONCERN WHEN HANDLING

(See Chapter 5 for more specic information regarding diseases)

• Avian inuenza

• E. Coli

• Botulism

• Avian cholera

RECOMMENDED TRAP SIZES

A permit is required to trap Canada geese.

COMMON SITUATIONS ENCOUNTERED

• Defecating on lawn

• Aggression towards people and pets

• Nesting location (by doors, walkways, landscaping, roofs, parking

lots, etc.)

• Destroying grass, yards, or golf courses

TECHNIQUES FOR DEALING WITH CANADA GEESE

Trapping: A nuisance goose capture permit is required from the ODNR

Division of Wildlife to trap geese. Capture permits are reserved as last

resort tactics, used only after complainants have attempted nonlethal

harassment tactics without satisfactory results. Roundups are conduct-

ed in June and July when the goslings cannot y and the adult geese

are molting, or replacing, their feathers. This permit can also be used in

a situation where an aggressive goose needs to be removed. When an

attack goose situation occurs and an ODNR Division of Wildlife employ-

ee determines the best course of action is removal of one or both geese,

this permit allows for hand-capturing the goose and euthanizing it.

Shooting: As with trapping, shooting permits are reserved as last resort

tactics. Shooting geese should be used to reinforce nonlethal tactics

which must continue after the permit is issued. Shooting permits are

typically issued in agricultural situations. In general, shooting permits

are issued early in the nesting season and are used to discourage birds

from feeding on emerging crops or to discourage birds from utilizing

a site. Flightless geese, including molting birds and goslings, are not

allowed to be shot. Check local regulations before discharging a rearm

within a city or village.

Exclusion: Installing perimeter fencing around a pond or using an over-

head grid system can help to prevent access to geese. Physical barriers

should be installed prior to March, before goose territories are estab-

lished, and the barriers should be left intact year-round. When prop-

erly installed and maintained, physical barriers will prevent geese from

walking from the pond into your yard.

Habitat modication: Geese are grazers and rely on grass for most of

their diet. Geese can be discouraged from using these grass areas by

the following methods: 1) Reduce or eliminate fertilizer applications to

the surrounding grass area to make the grass less desirable and nutri-

tious to the geese; 2) Plant grass species that are less desirable, such as

tall fescue (has a bitter taste); 3) Seed surrounding areas to natural prai-

rie grasses or other tall vegetation; 4) Dense plantings around feeding

areas and tall trees in ight paths will deter geese from using these ar-

eas; 5) Turn o pond aerators in the winter to allow the pond to freeze;

and 6) Do not feed the geese.

Frightening: Almost

any obedient breed

of dog, when trained

properly, can be used

to discourage Cana-

da geese. However,

border collies seem

to be the breed of

choice. A border col-

lie’s natural herding

instinct, along with

some command

training, make it par-

ticularly useful for

discouraging Cana-

da geese from areas

with ponds including

golf courses, apart-

ment complexes,

and industrial parks. It is best to use dogs to discourage geese before

and after the nesting season (before March 15th and after eggs have

hatched). Once geese are actively nesting, it is dicult to drive them o

your property. Noise makers, including screamers, bangers, and shell

crackers are eective. For best results, begin harassment early in the

season (February and March) and during dusk or early evening when

the birds congregate in numbers. Harassment at this time will disperse

the birds before they roost for the night and become accustomed to

the area. Care should be given to not overuse noise makers because

geese can become accustomed to the persistent noise. Often, congre-

gated birds must be harassed for several days before any results will be

seen. Be persistent and you will succeed. It is advised to contact local

law enforcement ocials before using noise makers in a city or village.

Toxicants and fumigants: None registered.

Repellents: Two types of chemicals are registered with the U.S. Envi-

ronmental Protection Agency as goose repellents: methyl anthranilate

(MA) and anthraquinone (AQ). Both chemicals were originally designed

to be sprayed on grass, thus making the grass unpalatable to geese. In

recent years, however, MA has also been used as an aerosol to chase

geese away. MA is a naturally occurring nontoxic, biodegradable food

ingredient found in concord grapes and orange blossoms. Two MA-

based repellents found in the marketplace are ReJeXiT and Repel. AQ

is a naturally occurring compound found in many plants and is virtually

odorless. The compound is harmless to wildlife and humans, and it per-

sists in all weather conditions (rain, snow, ice). Flight Control is the only

AQ-based repellent currently on the market.

Handling Geese: When operating under either a nuisance goose cap-

ture permit or dealing with an attack goose, it is important that all

geese are handled properly. The photos below will instruct you on how

to properly handle geese when working under these permits.

STEP 1

Gently hold the goose down to the ground

STEP 2

Grasp both wings where they meet the body

STEP 3

Grasp both legs with the other hand

STEP 4

Gently lift the goose and hold it against your body

• Do NOT grab geese by the neck or head

• Do NOT grab goslings with down feathers by the wings. Gently hold

them around their body and cradle them like a football against your

body.

• Watch the head so that the goose does not turn around and bite

you

LIFE HISTORY NOTES

Mating: Monogamous

Peak Breeding Activity: February-March

Gestation: 26-28 days

Young are Born: May

Clutch Size: 2-9; Average 5

Number of Broods per Year: 1

Seasonal Patterns: Some geese will be

around all year; Ohio also gets migrant

geese

Typical Foods: Grass and aquatic

vegetation

CANADA GOOSE

(Branta canadensis)

LAWS PERTAINING TO SMALL RODENTS

Can be trapped or shot at any time if causing a nuisance. If trapped,

they can be euthanized OR relocated after receiving permission from

the landowner where it will be released.

DISEASES OF CONCERN WHEN HANDLING SMALL RODENTS

(See chapter 5 for more specic information regarding diseases)

• Hantavirus

RECOMMENDED TRAP SIZES (All sizes in inches)

COMMON SITUATIONS ENCOUNTERED

• Holes and tunnels in yard

• Chewing holes in home, garage, or barn

• Eating landscape plants

TECHNIQUES FOR DEALING WITH SMALL RODENTS

Trapping: Trapping is the most practical method of eliminating small ro-

dents in most situations. Live-catch wire-mesh traps or common snap traps

can be used to catch most small rodents. Baits used to lure them into live

traps include peanut butter, nutmeats, pumpkin or sunower seeds, raisins,

prune slices, or common breakfast cereal grains. A helpful tip is to pre-bait

the trap for 2 to 3 days by wiring the trap doors open. This will condition

the animal to associate the new metal object in its territory with the new

free food source. Bodygripping or spear traps can be eective for dealing

with moles. The traps are usually set in-line with the tunnel the moles are

creating in the yard. Traps must be checked each calendar day.

Shooting: The use of an air rie or a .22-caliber rie with bird shot or

C.B. cap loads can be an eective method to kill small rodents. Check

local regulations before discharging a rearm within a city or village.

Exclusion: Rodents can t through small holes. Use hardware cloth

with 1/4-inch mesh, caulking, or other appropriate materials to close

openings where they could gain entry. In many cases, seeds and bulbs

can be covered by 1/4-inch hardware cloth and covered with soil to

protect the seeds and bulbs from being eaten but allow them to grow

through the hardware cloth. The cloth should extend at least 1 foot past

each margin of the planting. Exclusion is less expensive in the long run

than trapping.

Habitat modica-

tion: Landscaping

features, such as

ground cover, trees,

and shrubs, should

not be planted in

continuous fashion

connecting wooded

areas with the foun-

dations of homes.

They provide protec-

tion for small rodents

that may attempt

to gain access into

the home. Place bird

feeders at least 15

to 30 feet away from

buildings so spilled

bird seed does not

attract and support

rodents near them.

Spilled bird seed

should be removed

daily.

Frightening: En-

couraging a rodent’s

natural enemies will

greatly help in reduc-

ing their presence.

Hawks, owls, foxes,

coyotes, and snakes

all help control ro-

dent populations.

While decoys may

temporarily help,

encouraging live

hawks, owls, fox,

coyotes, and snakes will have a much larger benet.

Toxicants and fumigants: None registered.

Repellents: None registered.

Other Comments: Many small rodents, especially white-footed mice, are

important reservoirs for the bacterium for Lyme disease. While they can’t

pass Lyme disease to humans they can be an important management

component to dealing with the other animals that ticks use as hosts.

BODYGRIPPING LIVE or CAGE TRAP

Chipmunks

and rats

Rat-sized snap trap 16 x 5 x 5

Mice and

shrews

Mouse sized snap trap 10 x 3 x 3

Moles

Several commercially avail-

able traps; spear type trap

11 x 3 ½ x 3 ½

LIFE HISTORY NOTES

Mating: Polygamous

Peak Breeding Activity: Can be through-

out the year, but usually during the spring

and fall

Gestation:

Voles and Shrews - 19 days

Chipmunks - 31 days

Moles - 42 days

Mice - 25 days

Rats - 22 days

Young are Born: Can be throughout the

year, but usually during the spring and fall

Litter Size: Average 4-5

Number of Litters per Year: Shrews and

moles - 1 litter

Chipmunks - 2 litters

All others – More than 2 litters

Seasonal Patterns: Year-around resi-

dent. Active both during day and night

throughout the entire year

Typical Foods: Vegetation, seeds, nuts,

fruits, insects, and grubs. Moles feed on

earthworms as well.

Make sure you know which small rodent you are dealing with before control activities.

Many small mammals are similar in appearance and habitat.

MOLES, VOLES, SHREWS, MICE, RATS, AND CHIPMUNKS

LAWS PERTAINING TO COYOTES

Can be trapped or shot at any time if causing a nuisance. If trapped, can

NOT be relocated and must be euthanized. CANNOT be rehabilitated if

injured or orphaned.

DISEASES OF CONCERN WHEN HANDLING

(See chapter 5 for more specic information regarding diseases)

• Rabies

• Canine distemper

• Parvovirus

RECOMMENDED TRAP SIZES (All sizes in inches)

COMMON SITUATIONS ENCOUNTERED

• Conicts with domestic pets

• Killing livestock and poultry

TECHNIQUES FOR DEALING WITH COYOTES

Trapping: The use of a snare usually aords the best option especial-

ly in an urban setting. Sites where snares are set should be carefully

selected to avoid capturing non-target animals. Avoid setting snares

on any trails being used by non-target animals or domestic dogs. Use

a short snare cables to reduce injuries for accidentally-captured dogs.

Shooting: A rie or other rearm is an eective method to kill a coy-

ote. There is no closed season for hunting coyotes (although there are

some time restrictions during deer gun seasons) and the use of hunt-

ing is an eective maintenance tool for controlling coyote problems.

Coyotes may even be shot at night (check Ohio hunting and trapping

regulations for any additional laws about shooting coyotes at night),

however care should be taken to ensure all shots are done safely. If

coyotes are killing sheep or other livestock in the daytime, construct a

comfortable blind at a vantage point in the pasture where the killing

has occurred. Check local regulations before discharging a rearm

within a city or village.

Exclusion: While total exclusion of all coyotes by fencing is highly un-

likely, good fences can be important in reducing livestock predation or

incidents with domestic animals, as well as increasing the eectiveness

of other damage control methods (such as snares, traps, or guarding

animals). Coyotes that climb fences can be prevented by adding a

charged wire at the top of the fence or installing a wire overhang. With

any fencing, regular maintenance checks to repair damage is essential.

Most situations with dogs involves the dog chasing after the coyote be-

fore the actual conict occurs.

Habitat modication:

Removal and prop-

er disposal of dead

livestock are import-

ant in rural nuisance

situations. Livestock

producers should use

a fall lambing or calv-

ing program. Coyotes

tend to kill sheep at

night, so conning

sheep is one of the

most eective means

of reducing losses to

predation. Pets in ur-

ban areas, especially

from January through

April, should not be let out between sunset and sunrise without either

being on a lead, within a fenced in area, or with the owner who is con-

dent that the pet will not chase after a coyote or other wild animal.

Frightening: Frightening techniques are not usually eective in urban

areas. However, frightening devices can be useful for reducing losses

during short periods or until coyotes are able to be shot or trapped in

rural areas. The devices should not be used for long periods of time.

Lights above corrals at night have been shown to help reduce losses

by coyotes

Toxicants and fumigants: Toxicants are eective when used according

to the label and with proper licensing from the Ohio Department of

Agriculture. Check with USDA Wildlife Services before purchasing or

using toxicants.

Repellents: The use of guard animals such as llamas, donkeys, and

guard dogs can greatly help to reduce coyote predation on livestock.

Other Comments: Coyotes are common inhabitants of urban areas

and in most cases removal is not necessary. The most common issue

in urban areas is coyotes attacking domestic cats. This issue can almost

entirely be solved by not allowing cats to free-range or ensuring the cat

is indoors from sunset to sunrise.

COYOTE

(CANIS LATRANS)

LIFE HISTORY NOTES

Mating: Monogamous

Peak Breeding Activity: February and

March

Gestation: 58-63 days

Young are Born: Late April or May

Litter Size: 5-7

Number of Litters per Year: 1

Seasonal Patterns: Year-round resident;

active primarily at night and sometimes

during the day.

Typical Foods: Small mammals (voles,

shrews, mice, rabbits), carrion, poultry,

sheep

FOOTHOLD SNARE LOOP/HEIGHT LIVE/CAGE TRAP

4 1/2 - 6 10 - 12, 10 - 12 48 x 26 x 20

FOOTHOLD SNARE LOOP/HEIGHT LIVE/CAGE TRAP

Red Fox 4 ½-5 ½

Gray Fox 4 5/16 – 4 ½

6-8

Red Fox 42 x 15 x 15

Gray Fox 32 x 10 x 13

LIFE HISTORY NOTES

Mating: Monogamous

Peak Breeding Activity: March-May

Gestation: 22-30 days

Young are Born: Throughout the year

Litter Size: 4-7

Number of Litters per Year: 2-3

Seasonal Patterns: Year-round resident;

active primarily at night, and sometimes

during the day

Typical Foods: Aquatic vegetation, clams,

frogs, craysh, and small sh

LAWS PERTAINING TO FOXES

Red fox can be trapped or shot at any time if causing a nuisance. If

trapped, red fox CANNOT be relocated and must be euthanized or re-

leased on site. Gray fox can be trapped if causing a nuisance. Prior writ-

ten approval from the ODNR Division of Wildlife must be obtained to

euthanize a gray fox. Otherwise, gray fox must be released on site.

DISEASES OF CONCERN WHEN HANDLING

(See chapter 5 for more specic information regarding diseases)

• Rabies

• Canine distemper

• Leptospirosis

• Echinococcus Infection

• Sarcoptic Mange

RECOMMENDED TRAP SIZES (All sizes in inches)

COMMON SITUATIONS ENCOUNTERED

• Killing poultry

TECHNIQUES FOR DEALING WITH FOX

Trapping: A great deal of expertise is required to eectively trap foxes.

Trapping by inexperienced people may serve to educate foxes, making

them dicult to catch, even by experienced trappers. Traps with oset

and padded jaws cause less injury to conned animals and facilitate the

release of nontarget captures. In addition to foothold traps, snares are

also an eective method for trapping foxes. Cage traps are sometimes

eective for capturing juvenile red foxes living in urban areas.

Shooting: It is lawful to take nuisance red fox which cannot be live

trapped because of certain conditions by shooting. A rie or other re-

arm can be an eective method. Foxes, especially in damage situations,

are usually not seen during the day because of their nocturnal habits.

Shooting them can be eective at night with proper lighting. A rie of

most calibers or a shotgun will eectively kill a fox. If a fox is killing poul-

try, construct a blind at a vantage point close to where poultry has been

killed. Check local regulations before discharging a rearm within a city

or village. Prior written approval from the ODNR Division of Wildlife is

required prior to killing a nuisance gray fox.

Exclusion: Construct net wire fences with openings of 3 inches or less

to exclude red foxes. Bury the bottom of the fence 1 to 2 feet with an

apron of net wire extending at least 12 inches outward from the bot-

tom. A top or roof of net wire may also be necessary to exclude all foxes,

since some will read-

ily climb a fence. A

three-wire electric

fence with wires

spaced 6 inches, 12

inches, and 18 inch-

es above the ground

around a poultry

yard can help repel

foxes.

Habitat modica-

tion: The protection

of livestock and

poultry from fox

depredation is most

important during the

spring denning peri-

od when adults are

actively acquiring

prey for their young, especially if there is a history of fox depredation.

Foxes frequently den near humans, such as under decks or barns. A usu-

al attractant for a fox in an area are large numbers of small mammals.

Reducing the number of small mammals (see the small mammal sec-

tion) can help deter foxes from frequenting an area.

Frightening: Frightening techniques are not usually eective in urban

areas. However, frightening devices can be useful for reducing losses

during short periods or until foxes are able to be shot or trapped in rural

areas. The devices should not be used for long periods of time. Lights

over poultry yards or coops at night can help to reduce losses by a fox.

Another advantage of lighting is that foxes are more vulnerable to be-

ing shot. Flashing lights, such as a rotating beacon or strobe light, may

also provide temporary protection.

Toxicants and fumigants: Pesticides use is restricted by federal and

state laws. Toxicants can be eective when used according to the label

and with proper licensing from the Ohio Department of Agriculture.

Check with USDA Wildlife Services before purchasing or using toxicants.

Repellents: The use of guard animals such as llamas, donkeys, and

dogs (Great Pyrenees, Komondor, Anatolian Shepherd, and Akbash va-

rieties are commonly used) can greatly help to reduce fox predation on

poultry or livestock.

Other Comments: None.

RED FOX AND GRAY FOX

LAWS PERTAINING TO MUSKRATS

Can be trapped or shot at any time if causing a nuisance. If trapped,

they can be euthanized OR relocated after receiving permission from

the landowner where it will be released.

DISEASES OF CONCERN WHEN HANDLING

(See chapter 5 for more specic information regarding diseases)

• Tularemia

RECOMMENDED TRAP SIZES (All sizes in inches)

COMMON SITUATIONS ENCOUNTERED

• Den holes along pond edge

TECHNIQUES FOR DEALING WITH MUSKRATS

Trapping: It is recommended that traps set for muskrats be used in

a lethal manner in either deeper water or with the aid of a drowning

set. The most eective sets are those placed in runs or trails where the

muskrat’s hind feet scour out a path into the bottom from repeated

trips into and out of the den. Place the trap as close to the den entrance

as possible without restricting trap movement.

Snares can be set for muskrats on land and in water. The use of the cage

or colony type trap is permissible and is an appropriate trap if the musk-

rats are to be relocated. A box or live trap may be eective, but are not

typically used.

Shooting: A rie or other rearm can be an eective method to kill a

muskrat. Check local regulations before discharging a rearm within

a city or village. Extreme care must be taken when shooting muskrats

with a rie to diminish the likelihood of ricocheting bullets o the wa-

ter’s surface. For this reason, it is recommended that muskrats are only

shot when on land when using a rie. If shooting the muskrats on the

water is the only option, a shotgun is the best choice.

Exclusion: Exclusion through buried fencing (usually chain-link) 4 feet

above and 4 feet below the waterline on dikes or dams especially when

done during the con-

struction phase can

be helpful in stopping

muskrats from creating

holes on the dike or

dam. Using short fenc-

ing can also be helpful

where muskrats may

be leaving a pond or

lake to cut valuable

garden plants or crops.

It is easiest to fence

the plants you want to

protect since muskrats

could dig under fenc-

ing along the pond edge. Various compa-

nies, including Agridrain, sell animal or bar guards to install on the end

of the pipe which help to exclude muskrats from blocking water ow

into the pipe.

Habitat modication: Serious damage often can be prevented by con-

structing dams to the following specications: the inside face of the

dam should be built at a 6-to-1 slope; the outer face of the dam at a

2-to-1 slope with a top width of not less than 8 feet, preferably 10 to

12 feet. The normal water level in the pond should be at least 3 feet

below the top of the dam. Muskrats in some situations can be excluded

or prevented from digging into pond edges or other shoreline areas

through stone rip-rapping. Limestone rip rap sizes No. 1 or No. 2, or D

rock placed 3-4 inches thick from bottom of the levee to several feet

above the normal waterline is needed. Also, drawing the pond or wet-

land down in the winter months helps prevent muskrats that use bank

dens.

Frightening: No conventional frightening devices are eective.

Toxicants and fumigants: Zinc phosphide can be an eective toxicant

when used according to the label and with proper licensing from the

Ohio Department of Agriculture.

MUSKRAT

(ONDATRA ZIBETHICUS)

FOOTHOLD BODYGRIPPING

SNARE LOOP

WITH HEIGHT

LIVE OR CAGE

TRAP

1/2

or larger

(submerged)

1/2

- 5 3

3/4

1/2

24 x 6 x 6

LIFE HISTORY NOTES

Mating: Monogamous

Peak Breeding Activity: March-May

Gestation: 22-30 days

Young are Born: Throughout the year

Litter Size: 4-7

Number of Litters per Year: 2-3

Seasonal Patterns: Year-round resident;

active primarily at night, and sometimes

during the day

Typical Foods: Aquatic vegetation, clams,

frogs, craysh, and small sh

LAWS PERTAINING TO OPOSSUMS

Can be trapped or shot at any time if causing a nuisance. If trapped, can

NOT be relocated and must be euthanized.

DISEASES OF CONCERN WHEN HANDLING OPOSSUM

(See chapter 5 for more specic information regarding diseases)

• Rabies

• Leptospirosis

RECOMMENDED TRAP SIZES (All sizes in inches)

COMMON SITUATIONS ENCOUNTERED

• Denning under a porch, deck, or shed

• Denning in a chimney

• Getting into trash

• Eating food left outside for pet

TECHNIQUES FOR DEALING WITH OPOSSUM

Trapping: Opossums are not wary of traps and may be easily caught

with suitable sized box or cage traps. Foothold traps in a dirt hole set or

cubby set are eective. Bodygripping traps can also be eective. Using

fruit for bait such as apples, cherries, peaches, or grapes instead of meat

as this practice will reduce the chance of catching cats, dogs, or skunks.

Also, traps set on a running pole, on a picnic table, or o the ground to

further reduce the chance of catching a skunk.

Shooting: A rie of almost any caliber, or a shotgun loaded with No.

6 shot or larger, will eectively kill opossums. Check local regulations

before discharging a

rearm within a city

or village.

Exclusion: Keep

opossums from den-

ning under build-

ings by sealing o

all foundation open-

ings with wire mesh,

sheet metal, or con-

crete. Opossums

can be prevented

from climbing over

wire mesh fencing

by installing a tight-

ly stretched electric

fence wire near the

top of fence 3 inches

out from the mesh.

A properly installed

chimney cap will pre-

vent opossums from

entering a chimney.

Make sure trash is in containers and lids are secured.

Habitat modication: Opossums are opportunistic and will readily take

advantage of most any food source. They can be discouraged from an

area by eliminating food sources such as pet food, bird seed, fallen fruit,

compost piles, and household trash. Remove cover such as brush piles,

wood piles, and other piled debris. Properly dispose of garbage and re-

move other food sources such as pet food. Areas around cooking grills

should be cleaned regularly.

FOOTHOLD BODYGRIPPING

SNARE LOOP

with HEIGHT

LIVE or

CAGE TRAP

Encapsulated

(dog proof)

3 15/16 - 4

1/2

4 1/2 - 6 6/2-3 32 x 10 x 13

1 1/2 diameter,

2 1/8 – 2 7/8

trigger depth

LIFE HISTORY NOTES

Mating: Polygamous

Peak Breeding Activity: February-March

but can run from January-October

Gestation: 12-13 days

Young are Born: Peak is March-April, but

can be February-November

Litter Size: 5-25; average is 9

Number of Litters per Year: 1-3; 1 is typi-

cal in Ohio

Migration Patterns: Year-round resident;

individuals wander widely with a home

range of 15-40 acres

Typical Foods: Omnivorous. Will eat

carrion, insects, sh, reptiles, eggs, fruits,

vegetables, and nuts

OPOSSUM

(DIDELPHIS VIRGINIANA)

LAWS PERTAINING TO RABBITS

Can be trapped at any time if causing a nuisance. If trapped, they may

be euthanized or released with landowner permission.

DISEASES OF CONCERN WHEN HANDLING RABBITS

(See chapter 5 for more specic information regarding diseases)

• Tularemia

• Staphylococcosis

RECOMMENDED TRAP SIZES (All sizes in inches)

COMMON SITUATIONS ENCOUNTERED

• Garden damage

• Damaging trees

• Eating landscape plants

TECHNIQUES FOR DEALING WITH RABBITS

Trapping: Trapping with live or cage traps is the best way to remove

rabbits in cities, parks, and suburban areas. Place traps where you know

rabbits feed or rest and near cover so that rabbits won’t have to cross

large open areas to get to them. Traps must be checked each calendar

day. Move traps if they fail to make a catch within a week. For best re-

sults, use baits that are similar to what the target rabbits are feeding

on. A commercial wire trap can be made more eective (especially in

winter) by covering it with canvas or some other dark material. Be sure

the cover does not interfere with the trap’s mechanism.

Shooting: Check local regulations before discharging a rearm within

a city or village.

Exclusion: One of the best ways to protect a backyard garden or berry

patch is to put up a fence. A 2-foot fence with the bottom tight to the

ground or buried a few inches is sucient. However, a fence to address

multiple species such as groundhogs and raccoons will help address

other potential situations. Cylinders of 1/4-inch wire hardware cloth will

protect young orchard trees or landscape trees. The cylinders should

extend higher than a rabbit’s reach while standing on the expected

snow depth and stand 1 to 2 inches out from the tree trunk. Commer-

cial tree guards or tree wrap are another alternative.

Habitat modication:

Remove cover such as

brush piles, wood piles,

and other piled debris.

Feeding rabbits during

the winter in much the

same way as feeding

wild birds might divert

their attention from

trees and shrubs and

thus reduce damage

in some areas. There

is always the risk that

this tactic can draw

in greater numbers of

rabbits or increasing

the survival of those

present.

Frightening: Encour-

aging the rabbit’s nat-

ural enemies may aid

in reducing rabbit damage. Hawks, owls, foxes, coyotes, and snakes all

help control rabbit populations. A piece of rubber hose on the ground

may look enough like a snake to scare rabbits away. While decoys may

temporarily help, encouraging live hawks, owls, foxes, coyotes, and

snakes will have a much larger benet.

Repellents: Taste repellents are usually more eective than odor re-

pellents. Several chemical repellents, usually using thiram, discourage

rabbit browsing. Always follow the directions for application on the

container to maximize eectiveness. Some repellents are poisonous

and require safe storage and use. For best results, use repellents and

other damage control methods at the rst sign of damage. However,

most repellents are not designed to be used on plants or plant parts

destined for human consumption, so they may not be applicable to

garden issues. Taste repellents protect only the parts of the plant

they contact so new growth that emerges after appli-

cation is not protected and periodic reapplication will

be needed. Heavy rains and sprinklers may necessitate

reapplication of some repellents. Non-chemical repel-

lents such as blood meal can provide short term relief.

COTTONTAIL RABBIT

(SYLVILAGUS FLORIDANUS)

LIVE/CAGE TRAP

24 x 7 x 7

LIFE HISTORY NOTES

Mating: Polygamous

Peak Breeding Activity: April-May

Gestation: 26-28 days

Young are Born: March-September

Litter Size: 1-9; average is 5

Number of Litters per Year: Average of 3

litters a year

Seasonal Patterns: Year-round resi-

dent. Active both during day and night

throughout the entire year

Typical Foods: Clover, dandelion, plantain,

and ragweed in summer. In winter they

eat seeds, brambles, and bark of tree

saplings.

LAWS PERTAINING TO RACCOONS

Can be trapped or shot at any time if causing a nuisance. If trapped, can

NOT be relocated and must be released onsite or euthanized. Can NOT

be rehabilitated if injured or orphaned in specic counties.

DISEASES OF CONCERN WHEN HANDLING RACCOON

(See chapter 5 for more specic information regarding diseases)

• Rabies

• Canine distemper

• Parvovirus

• Leptospirosis

• Ascarid Roundworm

RECOMMENDED TRAP SIZES (All sizes in inches)

COMMON SITUATIONS ENCOUNTERED

• Denning under a porch, deck, or shed

• Denning in a chimney

• Denning in an attic

• Garden damage

• Eating sh in pond

• Eating chickens or other poultry

• Sod damage

• Getting into trash

• Eating food left outside for pet

• Trapped in dumpsters

TECHNIQUES FOR DEALING WITH RACCOONS

(Refer to Chapter 2 for specic information regarding these techniques)

Trapping: Raccoons are relatively easy to catch in traps, but it takes a

sturdy trap to hold one. They can be baited with marshmallows, canned

sh avored cat food, sardines, sh, or chicken. The back portion of the

trap should be tightly screened with one-half inch or smaller mesh wire

to prevent raccoons from reaching through the wire to pull out the bait.

Body-gripping traps are eective for raccoons and can be used in nat-

ural or articial cubbies or boxes and should be used in areas where

risk of non-target capture is low. Raccoons also can be captured with

foothold traps. The foot-encapsulating trap can be highly eective and

are highly-selective for raccoons. Once captured, raccoons may be re-

leased immediately at the capture site or euthanized. Trapped raccoons

cannot be relocated.

Shooting: Raccoons are seldom seen during the day because of their

nocturnal habits.

Shooting raccoons can

be eective at night

with proper lighting. A

rie of almost any cali-

ber, or a shotgun load-

ed with No. 6 shot or

larger, will eectively

kill raccoons. Check lo-

cal regulations before

discharging a rearm

within a city or village.

Exclusion: A wire

at the top of a fence

from an electric fence

charger will greatly

increase the eective-

ness for excluding rac-

coons. Where raccoons are entering homes or poultry coops ensure all

fascia and sot wood is adequately attached and that doors, vents, and

windows are properly sealed. Damage to sweet corn, watermelons, or

other garden plants can most eectively be stopped by excluding rac-

coons with a single or double hot-wire arrangement. Make sure trash is

in containers and lids are secured. Because raccoons are able to use their

front paws well, it may be necessary to wire, weight, or clamp trash can

lids down. It may also be necessary to secure cans to a rack or tie them

to a support to prevent raccoons from tipping them over. A properly

installed chimney cap will prevent raccoons from entering a chimney.

If raccoons are climbing the downspouts for access, use vegetable oil

or other slick materials to keep them from climbing. Do not complete

exclusion procedures until you are certain that all raccoons, including

young, have been removed from or have left the exclusion area.

Habitat modication: Raccoon access to rooftops can be limited by re-

moving overhanging branches and by wrapping or nailing ashing at

least 3 feet up from the base of the tree. Properly dispose of garbage

and remove other food sources such as pet food. Areas around cook-

ing grills should be cleaned regularly. Grub control may be necessary

to eliminate sod damage. Ensuring there is adequate hiding places or

shelter for sh in a pond can greatly reduce raccoons being able to grab

the sh.

Frightening: Lights and loud noise will only provide temporary relief.

Repellents: There are a few repellents commercially available to allevi-

ate chewing on structures.

Other Comments: Raccoons often nd themselves trapped in dump-

sters. Placing a board or stout tree branch in the dumpster at an angle

and giving the raccoon 24 hours to get out will allow the raccoon the

opportunity to get out.

LIFE HISTORY NOTES

Mating: Polygamous

Peak Breeding Activity: February-March

Gestation: 63-65 days

Young are Born: March-May

Litter Size: 3-7; average is 4

Number of Litters per Year: 1

Seasonal Patterns: Year-round resident;

active year-round, primarily at night and

sometimes during the day

Typical Foods: Omnivorous. Prefer ber-

ries, acorns, nestling birds, frogs, and sh

FOOTHEAD

BODYGRIP-

PING

SNARE LOOP

WITH HEIGHT

LIVE OR

CAGE TRAP

Encapsulated

(dog proof)

3 ½ -4 5/8

6 (land),

7 (part-sub-

merged)

6 – 8, 3 - 4 32 x 10 x 13

1 ½ diameter,

2 1/8 – 2 7/8

trigger depth

RACCOON

(PROCYON LOTOR)

LAWS PERTAINING TO SKUNKS

Can be trapped or shot at any time if causing a nuisance. If trapped, can

NOT be relocated and must be euthanized or released onsite.

DISEASES OF CONCERN WHEN HANDLING

(See chapter 5 for more specic information regarding diseases)

• Canine distemper

• Rabies

• Leptospirosis

RECOMMENDED TRAP SIZES (All sizes in inches)

COMMON SITUATIONS ENCOUNTERED

• Denning under a porch, deck, or shed

• Sod damage

• Spraying pets

• Getting into trash

• Eating food left outside for pet

TECHNIQUES FOR DEALING WITH SKUNKS

Trapping: Skunks can be caught in live traps set near the entrance to

their den. Several traps may be used when more than one animal is

present to reduce the amount of time of removal. Use canned sh-a-

vored cat food to lure skunks into traps. Other food baits such as peanut

butter, sardines, and chicken entrails are also eective. Foothold traps

should be avoided near houses or other sensitive areas because of po-

tential problem of scent discharge. When removing a trap with a skunk,

cover the trap with a tarp or other plastic and carry gently to reduce the

chance of the skunk spraying.

Shooting: A rie or another rearm may be used to dispatch a skunk.

Shooting in the back, severing the spinal cord, immediately followed by

a shot in the head may prevent the discharge of scent. However, anyone

shooting a skunk should expect a scent discharge.

Exclusion: Keep skunks from denning under buildings by sealing o

all foundation openings with wire mesh, sheet metal or concrete. Bury

fencing 1 ½ - 2 feet

where skunks can

gain access by dig-

ging. Window wells

or similar pits can be

covered with com-

mercially designed

products or with wire

mesh. Skunks nor-

mally do not climb

so even short fencing

can prove an eective

exclusion technique.

Make sure trash is in

containers and lids

are secured.

Habitat modica-

tion:

Remove cover

such as brush piles,

wood piles, and other

piled debris. Properly

dispose of garbage and remove other food sources such as pet food. Ar-

eas around cooking grills should be cleaned regularly. Grub control may

be necessary to eliminate sod damage.

Frightening: Lights and loud noise will likely only provide temporary

relief. Remember, as a natural defense skunks will spray when fright-

ened. Move slowly when around skunks to reduce the chance of them

spraying.

Toxicants and fumigants: Gas cartridges can be used to kill the skunk

in the den when used according to the label.

Other Comments: The skunk odor is persistent and dicult to remove.

Diluted solutions of vinegar, tomato juice or commercially available

products may be used to reduce or eliminate most of the odor from

people, pets or clothing. Another common method used to reduce

skunk smell is a solution of 1 quart of 3% hydrogen peroxide, ¼ cup of

baking soda, and 1 tsp of liquid soap. Clothing may also be soaked in

weak solutions of household chloride bleach or ammonia.

STRIPED SKUNK

(MEPHITIS MEPHITIS)

LIFE HISTORY NOTES

Mating: Polygamous

Peak Breeding Activity: Late February

through March

Gestation: 63 days

Young are Born: Late April through May

Litter Size: 3-10; average is 5

Number of Litters per Year: 1

Seasonal Patterns: Year-round resident;

active year-round; active primarily at night

and sometimes during the day

Typical Foods: Omnivorous. Will eat

carrion, insects, sh, crustaceans, small

mammals, fruits, grasses, buds, grains, and

nuts

FOOTHOLD BODYGRIPPING

SNARE LOOP

with HEIGHT

LIVE or CAGE

TRAP

3 ½ -4 ½ 6 4-6, 1 ½-2

24 x 7 x 7 up to

32 x 10 x 13

LAWS PERTAINING TO SNAKES

Only non-lethal methods may be used for the removal of nuisance

snakes. If a snake is caught, it must be released on the same property

where trapped. There are many species of snakes in Ohio and attention

must be made to determine if the snake causing the problem is endan-

gered or threatened (see chapter 3).

DISEASES OF CONCERN WHEN HANDLING SNAKES

(See chapter 5 for more specic information regarding diseases)

• Salmonelosis

RECOMMENDED TRAP SIZES (All sizes in inches)

COMMON SITUATIONS ENCOUNTERED

• In home and other structures

TECHNIQUES FOR DEALING WITH SNAKES

Trapping: Conventional traps are not legal for snakes. However, you

can make a snake funnel trap with drift fences constructed of 1/4- inch

or 1/2-inch mesh hardware cloth erected 2 feet high and 25 feet long.

One type of funnel trap can be made by rolling a 3 x 4-foot piece of 1/4-

inch mesh hardware cloth into a cylinder about 1 foot in diameter and

4 feet long. An entrance funnel can be made similarly and tted into

one end of the cylinder. Close the other end of the cylinder with hard-

ware cloth and attach the drift fence. To catch the animal from either

direction, put another funnel at the other end of the trap and another

drift fence facing the opposite direction. Glue boards have proven to be

useful for trapping snakes in or under buildings. Securely tack several

rodent glue traps to a plywood board approximately 24 x 16 inches to

make a glue patch at least 7 x 12 inches. Place the board against a wall

where snakes are likely to travel. Snakes become stuck when they try

to cross the board. Do not place the board near any object (pipes or

beams) that the snake can use for leverage in attempting to free itself. A

hole drilled through the plywood board will allow removal of the board

and the entrapped snake with a long stick or hooked pole. Animals

trapped in the glue can be removed with the aid of vegetable oil, which

counteracts the adhesive. Do not use glue boards outdoors or in any

location where they are likely to catch pets or non-target wildlife.

Shooting: It is not legal to shoot a snake.

Exclusion: It is usu-

ally best to deal with

snakes in buildings

through exclusion.

Locate the snakes

and their points of

exit or entry through

inspection, usually

around the founda-

tion of the structure.

When locating entry

and exit areas con-

sider potential as well

as active points of

access. Snakes enter

houses, barns and

other buildings when

habitat conditions

are suitable inside

the buildings. They

are particularly attracted to rodents and insects as

well as cool, damp, dark areas often associated with buildings. All open-

ings 1/4 inch (0.6 cm) and larger should be sealed to exclude snakes.

Check the corners of doors and windows, as well as around water pipe

and electrical service entrances. Holes in masonry foundations (poured

concrete and concrete blocks or bricks) should be sealed with to ex-

clude snakes.

Habitat modication: A primary food of many snakes are rodents such

as rats, mice, and chipmunks. Removing rodents and rodent habitats

can help eliminate the desire for snakes to use the area. Put all possible

sources of rodent food in secure containers. Keep all vegetation closely

mowed around buildings. Remove bushes, shrubs, rocks, boards, and

debris of any kind lying close to the ground, as these provide cover for

both rodents and snakes.

Toxicants and fumigants: None are legal.

Repellents: A few commercial repellents

are available. Most use sulphur or naph-

thalene to deter the snakes but usually

have varied results.

LIFE HISTORY NOTES

Mating: Polygamous

Peak Breeding Activity: Most from April

to June, but can vary

Gestation: Varies by species

Young are Born: Varies by species

Litter Size: Varies by species

Number of Litters per Year: One

Seasonal Patterns: Year-round resident;

will hibernate in winter (location and time

depends on species)

Typical Foods: Small rodents, insects, bird

eggs, amphibians

LIVE or CAGE TRAP

Glue traps or snake

cage trap

SNAKES

LAWS PERTAINING TO SQUIRRELS

Can be trapped or shot at any time if causing a nuisance. If trapped,

they can be euthanized OR relocated after receiving permission from

the landowner where it will be released. Can be rehabilitated if injured

or orphaned.

DISEASES OF CONCERN WHEN HANDLING

(See chapter 5 for more specic information regarding diseases)

• Rabies

RECOMMENDED TRAP SIZES (All sizes in inches)

COMMON SITUATIONS ENCOUNTERED

• Denning in an attic

• Denning in a chimney

• Chewing on base of small trees or on tree limbs

• Chewing on wood of home, deck, or shed

• Chewing maple sap tubing

TECHNIQUES FOR DEALING WITH SQUIRRELS

Trapping: A variety of traps will catch squirrels. Regular rat-sized snap

traps will catch ying and red squirrels. Typically, wire cage traps and

box traps are used for squirrels. Pre-bait traps and tie trap doors open

for two or three days to get squirrels accustomed to feeding in the

traps. Then set the traps and check them daily. For fox or gray squirrels,

small bodygripping traps may be utilized inside buildings or in certain

locations outside where the risk of capturing non-target species can be

minimized.

Shooting: A rie or other rearm is an eective method to kill a squirrel.

A shotgun with No. 6 shot, an air rie, or a .22-caliber rie is suitable. The

shooting of squirrels is permitted in situations where live trapping is

not practical or when not eective. It is lawful to shoot nuisance squir-

rels which cannot be live trapped because of certain conditions. Check

local regulations before discharging a rearm within a city or village.

Exclusion: Close openings to attics and other parts of buildings but

make sure not to lock squirrels inside or they may cause a great deal

of damage in their eorts to chew out. Place traps inside as a precau-

tion after openings are closed. A squirrel excluder can be improvised by

mounting an 18-inch section of 4-inch plastic pipe over an opening at a

45-degree angle. Close openings to buildings with heavy 1/2-inch wire

mesh or make oth-

er suitable repairs.

Fences topped with

electried wires may

eectively keep squir-

rels out of gardens or

small orchards. Wrap

tree trunks with ash-

ing about 4 feet from

the ground to elim-

inate squirrels from

using it to access

structures. IF squir-

rels are using a chim-

ney, installation or

repair of the chimney

cap is in order.

Habitat modica-

tion: Trim limbs and

trees to 6 to 8 feet

away from buildings

to prevent squirrels

from jumping onto

roofs. In backyards where squirrels are causing problems at bird feed-

ers, consider providing an alternative food source. Wire or nail an ear of

corn to a tree or wooden fence post away from where the squirrels are

causing problems. In high-value crop situations, it may pay to remove

woods or other trees near orchards to block squirrel access points.

Frightening: In some situations, the use of owl decoys may dissuade

the squirrel from an area. Recordings of hawks or owls may also deter

squirrels from an area. However, these are only eective for a short time

and not during nesting season to allow for repairs of holes or entrances

into the structure or installation of a chimney cap.

Repellents: A cat may discourage squirrels and should be kept on a

lead when outside. A few commercially available taste repellents that

can be applied to birdseed, bulbs, owers, trees, and shrubs. Capsaicin

(found in hot peppers such as cayenne) is also a taste repellent and can

be used on wood structures that squirrels are chewing and can even be

added to bird seed to deter squirrels. Polybutenes are sticky materials

that can be applied to buildings, railings, downspouts, and other areas

to keep squirrels from climbing. A pre-application of masking tape can

make clean up much easier.

SQUIRRELS

LIFE HISTORY NOTES

Mating: Polygamous

Peak Breeding Activity: February and

March; June and July

Gestation: 40-45 days

Young are Born: Late April or May

Litter Size: 2-4

Number of Litters per Year: 2

Seasonal Patterns: All are year-around

residents; gray, fox, and red squirrels ac-

tive primarily during the day while ying

squirrels are active at night

Typical Foods: Hickory, oak, and beech

nuts; blackberry, dogwood, cherry, and

wild grape; corn, buds of maple, elm and

willow; insects

BODYGRIPPING LIVE/CAGE TRAP

Gray and Fox Squirrel 3 ½ -4 ½ 19 x 6 x 6

Red Squirrel Rat sized snap trap 16 x 5 x 5

Flying Squirrel Rat sized snap trap 16 x 5 x 5

LAWS PERTAINING TO WOODCHUCKS

Can be trapped or shot at any time if causing a nuisance. If trapped,

they can be euthanized OR relocated after receiving permission from

the landowner where it will be released.

DISEASES OF CONCERN WHEN HANDLING

(See chapter 5 for more specic information regarding diseases)

• Rabies

• Ascarid roundworm

RECOMMENDED TRAP SIZES (All sizes in inches)

COMMON SITUATIONS ENCOUNTERED

• Denning under a porch, deck, or shed Garden damage

• Holes in yard or eld

• Chewing on wood of home, deck, or shed

• Eating landscape plants

TECHNIQUES FOR DEALING WITH WOODCHUCKS

Trapping: Woodchucks can be caught in live traps. Traps baited with

apple slices, broccoli, lettuce, cabbage or other vegetables that are

changed daily work best. Locate traps at main entrances or major

travel lanes. Place guide logs on either side of the path between the

burrow opening and the trap to help funnel the animal into the trap.

Groundhogs can be released on-site, outside the city or village limits

with permission of the landowner, or may be euthanized. Bodygripping

traps are eective in certain situations. Bodygripping traps are well suit-

ed for use near or under structures where shooting presents a hazard.

Bodygripping traps greater than 5 inches must be covered to prohibit

other animals and domestic pets from getting into the trap from the

outside. Traps can be enclosed with items such as welded wire, screen-

ing, boards, or boxes. Snares are also an eective means of controlling

woodchucks. Only licensed commercial nuisance wild animal control

operators are permitted to use snares without a relaxing lock for the

purpose of taking woodchucks.

Shooting: A rie or other rearm is an eective method to kill a wood-

chuck, especially when in large elds to address holes in the eld or

crop loss. Check local regulations before discharging a rearm within

a city or village.

Exclusion: Fencing is an eective tool to stop garden and landscape

damage. Fences should be at least 3 feet high. However, woodchucks

are good climbers and can easily scale wire fences. To alleviate ground-

hogs climbing over the fence you can place an electric wire 4 to 5 inches

o the ground and the same distance outside the fence. When connect-

ed to a fence charger,

the electric wire will

prevent climbing and

burrowing. Vegeta-

tion near the electric

fence should be re-

moved regularly to

prevent the system

from shorting out.

To prevent burrow-

ing under the fence,

bury the lower edge

10 to 12 inches in the

ground.

Habitat modica-

tion: Remove cover

such as brush piles,

wood piles, and other

piled debris.

Frightening: Scare-

crows and other egies can provide temporary relief

from woodchuck damage. Move them regularly and

incorporate human activity in the susceptible area.

Toxicants and fumigants: Gas cartridges can be used

to kill the woodchuck in the den when used accord-

ing to the label.

Repellents: Woodchucks will also chew on structures.

The damage can be dierentiated from squirrels be-

cause squirrel damage usually is less than 18 inches

o the ground. Placing ashing or spray with cayenne

pepper to help stop the chewing at that location. A

few repellents are commercially available to alleviate

chewing on structures.

Other comments: Woodchuck damage usually starts in one place

along the edge of the garden or crop eld and slowly radiates out

from there. The plants will show clean cuts on the plant because wood-

chucks have sharp teeth. There oftentimes is also a trail leading back to

a hole in the ground where they live or under a porch, deck, or shed. Be

mindful that there may be several woodchucks or other wild animals

using a woodchuck burrow. Care should be taken to ensure that a bad-

ger is not using the burrow. Badger holes closely resemble woodchuck

holes. Because a badger is listed as an endangered species in Ohio, care

should be taken to properly identify if one is using the hole. A hole that

a badger digs will be oval in shape and 8 to 10 inches in diameter, with

a fan-shaped mound of dirt on one side of the hole.

LIFE HISTORY NOTES

Mating: Polygamous

Peak Breeding Activity: March-May

Gestation: 31-32 days

Young are Born: April-early June

Litter Size: 2-7; average is 4

Number of Litters per Year: 1

Seasonal Patterns: Year-round resident;

hibernates in the winter; Active primarily

during the day

Typical Foods: Grasses, clover, alfalfa,

soybeans, lettuce, apples

FOOTHOLD BODYGRIPPING

SNARE LOOP

with HEIGHT

LIVE/CAGE

TRAP

No greater

than 6

5-7 4 – 6 , 2 – 3 32 x 10 x 13

GROUNDHOG (WOODCHUCK)

(MARMOTA MONAX)

INTRODUCTION

Many diseases aect wildlife. Some are infectious to humans while

others are more problematic for wildlife alone. As a commercial nui-

sance wildlife control operator, it is important to have knowledge about

potential diseases you may encounter when dealing with wildlife. The

following list includes the wildlife diseases you are most likely to en-

counter. Common terms:

Host- An organism negatively aected by a disease.

Vector – The route of infection of a disease.

Reservoir – An organism that harbors a disease but is not negatively

aected.

ASCARID OR RACCOON ROUNDWORM

Introduction – Raccoons are the vector of ascarid roundworms.

Clinical Signs – No known symptoms.

Diagnosis – Adult parasites can be seen in the intestinal tract of rac-

coons. Fecal otation can be used to examine feces under a microscope

for the presence of eggs.

Transmission – Adult worms present in the intestinal tract shed eggs in

the feces of raccoons. The egg then develops into a larva until they are

ingested by mammals. Once ingested, the larvae develop into adult

worms in the intestinal tract of that animal and then migrate to oth-

er organs and the central nervous system. In wild animals, the cycle is

completed when raccoons eat the carcasses of infected animals. In hu-

mans, raccoon roundworm is an end host.

Public Health Implications – The larvae of raccoon roundworms are

infectious to humans if ingested. There have been human fatalities

conrmed because of the ingestion of raccoon roundworm. Humans

should avoid contact with raccoon feces, particularly where sucient

time has elapsed for the eggs to develop to the infectious larval stage.

Rubber gloves should be worn when handling animals, when handling

traps that have contact with raccoon feces, and when handling other

material that may have contact with raccoon feces. Care should be ex-

ercised in handling infected material to not stir up dried feces. However,

aerosolized infection should be considered low risk. Hands and equip-

ment should be thoroughly washed when contact with raccoon feces

has occurred.

AVIAN CHOLERA

Introduction– Most birds and mammal species can become infected

with this bacterial disease as it has multiple strains. There is usually one

strain, Type 1, that can be found in wild birds. The most commonly af-

fected birds are ducks, geese, coots, gulls, and crows.

Clinical Signs – This disease has a sudden onset and sick birds usually

are not seen because the disease normally kills birds rapidly, resulting

in large die-os in wild ducks and geese. Body condition of the birds is

usually good. If any sick birds are present they will appear lethargic, and

when captured may die in a short period of time. Visual signs to look

for are swimming in circles, throwing head back between wings, errat-

ic ights, and mucous discharge from the mouth, and blood-stained

droppings.

Diagnosis – Look for hemorrhages on the liver, heart, intestines, and

gizzard. The liver may appear dark in color and may be swollen and rup-

ture when handled. In the upper digestive tract, food that was recently

ingested may be present, but the lower tract may contain a thick yel-

lowish viscous uid that contains the bacteria.

Transmission – Bacteria is usually transmitted by bird-to-bird contact,

contact with feces or secretions of infected birds, or ingestion of food or

water that containing the bacteria. Aerosol transmission can occur also.

The bacteria can survive in soil and water for up to four months.

Public Health Implications – Humans are not at high risk for infection,

but it is recommended to wear gloves and wash hands when handling

sick or dead birds.

AVIAN INFLUENZA

Introduction– Avian Inuenza is present in many strains. Wild water-

fowl can be carriers of the Type A virus which can be classied into two

dierent categories: low pathogenic avian inuenza (LPAI) A viruses,

and highly pathogenic avian inuenza (HPAI) A viruses. Wild waterfowl

carry the virus in their intestines and respiratory tract, but usually do

not get sick. Wild birds are viewed as hosts for this virus and it can be

spread to domesticated birds such as ducks, turkey, and chickens. Do-

mesticated birds can get very sick or even die from this virus.

Clinical Signs – In wild birds, there usually are no signs of the virus as

they are carriers of the disease.

Diagnosis – Diagnosis is made through oral or cloacal swabbing. Con-

tact your local ODNR Division of Wildlife district oce to see if the birds

qualify for testing.

Transmission – Infected waterfowl can spread the virus through nasal

secretions, saliva, and feces. Susceptible birds become infected when

they encounter the virus as it is shed by infected birds. Transmission

also occurs when a susceptible bird has contact with surfaces that are

contaminated.

Public Health Implications – Avian Inuenza Type A viruses usually do

not infect humans, but rare cases have been reported. These rare cases

have occurred after direct or close contact with infected poultry.

Chapter 5 – Wildlife Diseases

Information within this chapter was primarily obtained from the Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases in the Southeastern

United States, Third Edition by William R. Davidson

BOTULISM

Introduction– Botulism comes in many forms. Botulism Type C is a

common disease of waterfowl, but it can also occur in mammals or oth-

er birds. Botulism Type E is a common disease of mergansers, loons, and

gulls.

Clinical Signs – The botulism toxin produces paralysis of muscles in

animals. Often, the animal has the inability to walk or y. Because of a

paralysis of neck muscles caused by the toxin, the animal often is found

with its head laying to the side or underwater.

Diagnosis – In live birds, botulism is often suspected by visually con-

rming the clinical signs such as birds with their heads under water and

loss of coordination. In many cases there are many dead birds lying in

the water together along with some additional birds that are dying.

Suspected animals can be tested by sampling their blood either right

before death or soon after death. Most times the disease is associated

with periods of hot weather and stagnant water, and therefore animals

needing to be tested must be immediately refrigerated. Frozen samples

often impair the ability to test for the toxins.

Transmission – The bacteria grows in decaying organic matter in the

water, including dead vertebrates (such as dead waterfowl) and inver-

tebrates. Maggots on the carcasses will concentrate the toxins within

the dead animal and when eaten by other animals, passes the large

toxin concentration onto the animal eating the carcass. Recent studies

have shown that botulism spores can persist for years, leading to sub-

sequent outbreaks of the disease.

Public Health Implications – Type C botulism in humans has not been

associated with botulism in waterfowl. However, Type E botulism is

highly toxic to humans. Basic sanitary procedures should be followed

for Type C, however, if Type E is suspected contact your local ODNR Di-

vision of Wildlife district oce to determine if the birds need tested and

the proper way to handle the species aected.

CANINE DISTEMPER

Introduction – Canine distemper in Ohio is often found in foxes and

coyotes. However, raccoons and skunks are also highly susceptible to

canine distemper. Other mustelids including mink, weasel, and otter

are potentially susceptible as well.

Clinical Signs – Canine distemper is often mistaken for rabies because

the signs are similar. In addition to the signs of rabies, you will often

notice respiratory distress, coughing, sneezing, diarrhea, or discharge

from the eyes and nose which causes a crusty appearance around the

eyes or nose. You may also notice the animal having convulsions or a

loss of fear of humans.

Diagnosis –For dead animals, carcasses can be refrigerated to preserve

the specimen until contact can be made with your local ODNR Division

of Wildlife district oce to determine need to test. However, in most

cases the animal is tested for rabies as well when there has been human

or pet exposure.

Transmission – Transmission is by contact with infected animals or

their excretions or secretions such as the discharge from the eyes or

nose or urine.

Public Health Implications – Humans cannot contract canine dis-

temper, however if there has been contact with a human to a suspect

animal the same procedure should be followed for submission of the

animal for rabies testing because of the similarity in the clinical signs.

If a domestic dog has come in contact with a suspect animal and is not

current on its vaccinations, encourage the owner to contact their vet-

erinarian to describe the situation to determine the potential exposure

to the dog.

ECHINOCOCCUS INFECTION

Introduction – This is a parasite disease caused by infection from a tiny

(less than 1/8-inch long) tapeworm. Red foxes are the major host of this

tapeworm.

Clinical Signs – Red foxes that are infected normally do not show signs

of the disease.

Diagnosis – Eggs can be detected in the feces of infected foxes, but

they are impossible to distinguish from eggs of other common tape-

worms. Infected animals can be determined best at necropsy by recov-

ery and identication of adult tapeworms which can be found in the

intestine of the fox.

Transmission – Transmission can be made by accidentally ingesting

eggs shed in the feces of denitive host.

Public Health Implications – Humans are susceptible to infection by

the larval stage of E. multilocularis, which causes alveolar hydatid dis-

ease in people. When eggs that are shed from the host are accidentally

ingested, the larvae develop into large cysts that destroy the liver. Hu-

mans who have regular contact with fox or coyotes are more suscepti-

ble to this disease because eggs are immediately infectious when shed

in the feces of foxes or coyotes.

E. COLI

Introduction – Escherichia coli is a naturally occurring bacteria that can

be found in digestive tracts of warm-blooded animals.

Clinical Signs – E. coli may cause gastrointestinal problems such as

nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea when present in large amounts. Some

E. coli can even cause urinary tract infections and respiratory sickness.

Symptoms usually last for about a week or two.

Diagnosis – Typical diagnosis can be initially made by visualizations of

the clinical signs.

Transmission – E. coli is contagious and can spread easily when a per-

son does not wash their hands after handling raw food or feces.

Public Health Implications – People who are around animals should

wash their hands frequently as the bacteria can spread by handling the

animal or touching objects that are contaminated.

GIARDIA

Introduction – Beavers, muskrats, voles, coyotes, and others are sus-

ceptible to infection by protozoan parasites and are considered a host

for carrying this parasite.

Clinical Signs – Clinical signs are not reported in wild mammals, but

in humans and domestic pets, it may cause diarrhea, upset stomach,

abdominal pain, and dehydration.

Diagnosis – Diagnosis is made by microscopic examination of feces.

Transmission – Once the parasite is passed through feces of the host,

it can survive for weeks or even months. A person can become infected

by swallowing the parasite, for example by drinking contaminated wa-

ter. It cannot be passed through contact with blood.

Public Health Implications – Giardia is one of the most common wa-

terborne diseases. Most outbreaks occur from drinking contaminated

water from streams, rivers, or lakes. It is important to lter or boil any

water for drinking purposes while exploring the outdoors.

HANTAVIRUS

Introduction – Rodents are the primary reservoir hosts of Hantavirus.

The deer mouse is likely the principal reservoir in Ohio, however the

white-footed mouse could also be a reservoir. Ultimately, all rodents

likely have the potential for carrying the viruses.

Clinical Signs – Human infection with some Hantavirus causes an acute,

severe respiratory disease in which aected patients have diculty

breathing because of rapid uid build-up in the lungs. Rodents are as-

ymptomatic carriers and do not show any clinical signs when infected.

Diagnosis – Diagnosis of hantavirus is made by looking for antibodies

in the serum of patients or by demonstrating hantavirus antigen or RNA

in tissues.

Transmission – Human infection occurs when virus particles aerosol-

ized from rodent urine, feces, or saliva are inhaled. Transmission is also

possible from handling rodents.

Public Health Implications – Residents of houses with heavy rodent

infestation or workers who have frequent contact with rodents such

as commercial nuisance wildlife control operators have a higher risk

of infection. However, the overall risk of infection with Hantavirus is

considered low. You should use safety precautions such as use of a half-

face air-purifying lter, rubber gloves when handling traps and rodents,

disinfection of supplies, and proper disposal of carcasses.

HISTOPLASMOSIS

Introduction – While wild animals are not directly responsible for

spreading histoplasmosis, animals, especially birds and bats, are re-

sponsible for creating an enriched organic environment in their fecal

droppings that allows the fungus to grow as a mold.

Clinical Signs – Flu-like symptoms with respiratory involvement is the

most common problem in humans.

Diagnosis – Anytime you are working in large areas of bird feces or bat

guano you should assume the fungus is present. Conrmation of its

presence can be made in a laboratory under microscope.

Transmission – Histoplasmosis is not transmissible from human to hu-

man. Transmission occurs when the spores of the fungus are inhaled

either physically or aerially when working around large amounts of bird

feces or bat guano.

Public Health Implications – Up to 80 percent of people become in-

fected with histoplasmosis with an average of 90 percent of infections

in people with normal immune systems going without symptoms. In

some rare cases severe systemic disease can occur. When in areas of po-

tential histoplasmosis such as large quantities of bird feces or bat gua-

no, preventative measures such as minimizing disturbance of the feces

or guano and wetting it before removal as well as use of an appropriate

protective face mask is suggested. Areas can be decontaminated with

the use of household chlorine bleach solution containing 5 percent so-

dium hypochlorite.

LEPTOSPIROSIS

Introduction – This disease can be found any in a wide variety of wild

mammals. It is caused by members of the bacterial species Leptospira

interrogans, which is represented by more than 180 serologically dis-

tinct varieties.

Clinical Signs – Most wild animals have not been studied for signs of

leptospirosis, but isolation from clinically normal animals show very lit-

tle to any signs.

Diagnosis – Diagnosis can be made by using uorescent antibody

staining of fresh tissues. Serologic testing of blood for antibodies can

also be used on wild animals for leptospiral infection. Preferred diag-

nostic specimens are a live animal or fresh tissues such as a kidney,

blood serum, or tissues preserved in 10 percent buered formalin.

Transmission – Organisms can last a long length of time in alkaline

waters or moist soils. Ingesting water or food contaminated with urine

from an infected animal is the primary route of transmission.

Public Health Implications – Humans who are infected with leptospiro-

sis can have unapparent to severe disease with fatalities. Clinical signs

usually result in fever, headaches, weakness, and vomiting. Severe cases

can include meningitis, renal failure, and death. Sources of organisms

can be water, soil, or infected animals.

LYME DISEASE

Introduction – Rodents, especially the white-footed mouse in Ohio, are

the primary reservoir for the disease. All mammals are considered hosts

for the black-legged ticks. There is even evidence that birds and reptiles

can also be considered hosts for Lyme disease.

Clinical Signs – Clinical signs of Lyme disease in an animal typically is

neurologic impairment. There is usually a red rash that appears at the

bite site and the rash may spread out to 5 inches or more from the site

of the bite. The animal usually exhibits u-like symptoms as the spiro-

chete spreads.

Diagnosis – Diagnosis

is typically made by a

physician through

sampling of blood.

Transmission – Trans-

mission occurs when

an animal is bitten

by an infected black-

legged tick and the

tick passes the spiro-

chete onto the ani-

mal. When the host is

bitten by the larvae or

nymph stage of the

blacklegged tick, it

passes the spirochete

onto the tick. The tick then in turn passes the spirochete onto the next

host.

Public Health Implications – Humans and animals in areas where the

blacklegged tick exists should consider themselves susceptible to get-

ting bit especially in areas of mid-height grass and shrubs. However,

the disease is treatable in the early stages with antibiotics. If you de-

velop a rash from the area of a tick bite you should contact your phy-

sician immediately. When possible, it is important to use insect or tick

repellents, tuck pant legs into socks, and frequently search for and ap-

propriately remove the ticks when in areas of known populations of

blacklegged ticks.

PARVOVIRUS

Introduction – There are two main carriers of parvovirus in Ohio, rac-

coons and coyotes.

Clinical Signs – Common signs of the parvovirus in animals is diarrhea,

dehydration, and depression followed rapidly by death. Also, the intes-

tines of the animal are often reddened.

Diagnosis – Initial diagnosis can typically be made by visualization of

the clinical signs of an animal. Conrmation can be made by submit-

ting refrigerated fresh intestines for sampling.

Transmission – Transmission from animal to animal is typically through

contact with infected feces. The virus is very stable in the environment

and can persist for several weeks in fecal material.

Public Health Implications – There are no known human health con-

cerns with parvovirus. However, with the canine parvovirus that is car-

ried by coyotes, there is a possibility for transmission to domestic dogs.

There is a pre-exposure vaccination for domestic dogs that will prevent

transmission to them. Owners that notice that their unvaccinated dogs

have eaten or come in contact with coyote feces should contact their

veterinarian.

RABIES

Introduction –In Ohio, raccoons, skunks, and bats are the primary vec-

tor species of rabies. However, all mammals are susceptible to rabies

including humans. Birds are not capable of contracting rabies.

Clinical Signs – Animals with rabies typically have marked changes

from normal behavior. Common signs rabies are aimless wandering,

lethargy, lack of coordination, and paralysis. Less frequent, animals be-

come viscous at any moving object and often leads to self-mutilation.

Diagnosis – Diagnosis of the virus cannot be made on a live animal.

Trapped wildlife suspected of having rabies should be killed without

damage to the brain, double bagged, and contact with the local health

department should be made by the next business day.

Transmission – The primary way the rabies virus is transmitted is by the

bite of an infected animal or by exposure to open wounds of the saliva

or bodily uids of an animal.

Public Health Implications - In cases where there has been contact

with a human or a pet and rabies is a possibility, especially when there

has been contact with raccoons, skunks, or bats you should insist the

person contact their local health department by the next business day

with a history of who and what has had contact with the animal. Rubber

gloves should be used to handle the animals. Human and pet exposure

to rabies should be treated seriously. Once symptoms of rabies start

showing, the disease is almost always 100 percent fatal for the human

or pet. Pre-exposure vaccination is available through your doctor and is

strongly encouraged for those who routinely handle wild animals (such

as commercial nuisance wild animal control operators).

SALMONELLOSIS

Introduction – Almost any animal can be a host for salmonellosis. How-

ever, birds and reptiles tend to be the primary vectors for transmission

to humans.

Clinical Signs – Clinical signs of salmonellosis in wildlife can be dicult

to notice, but can sometimes be recognized when an animal is having

diculty swallowing, loss of appetite, or intense thirst. In humans it

causes diarrhea, acute gastroenteritis, or meningitis.

Diagnosis – This disease is often suspected when several dead birds

are found in an area and when, based on observations, conjunctivitis is

ruled out. However, conrmation can be made by culturing the bacte-

ria in a laboratory from samples of the liver or spleen from refrigerated

carcasses.

Transmission – Transmission primarily occurs when handling individu-

als infected with the bacteria. However, objects that come in contact

with infected animals, such as bird feeders, can also harbor salmonel-

losis and provide a method of transmission to other animals including

humans.

Public Health Implications – Humans and animals are highly suscep-

tible to salmonellosis and proper hand washing as well as washing of

equipment such as cages and bird feeders with hot soapy water will

greatly reduce the spread of the bacteria.

SARCOPTIC MANGE

Introduction – The causative agent leading to the clinical signs are

mites. There are many types of mange and in most cases, mange mites

are species specic. Sarcoptic mange occurs in red fox and coyotes but

can also be passed to domestic dogs. Notoedric mange occurs in gray

and fox squirrels.

Clinical Signs – Animals with mange spend an inordinate amount of

time scratching, chewing, or licking infected skin. The skin of animals

with mange will often have a crusty appearance which is a result of

the scratching or chewing. Signicant hair loss is usually also seen on

animals with mange. At times, animals can appear weak or emaciated,

especially when infected during the winter months.

Diagnosis – A typical diagnosis is made by visualizing clinical signs of

the mite’s presence. Conrmation of the disease can be made by view-

ing skin scrapings under a microscope to look for the mites.

Transmission – Transmission from one animal to another is made when

direct contact is made

with an infected animal.

The mite itself will not kill

the animal. However, the

open wounds caused by

the scratching or chew-

ing can lead to infection,

sometimes causing the

animal to become sick or

die. In addition, animals

with severe hair loss in the

winter may become sus-

ceptible to hypothermia

and die from exposure to

the harsh winter elements.

Public Health Implications

– Humans cannot become

infected with either of these

types of mange through

colonization of the mites.

However, it is possible if

the mites are on a human

for that person to experience severe itching when regularly handling

mangy animals.

STAPHYLOCOCCOSIS

Introduction – Staphylococcosis is a common bacteria found on the

skin and membranes of most animals. It can occasionally be found in

wild rabbits. Caution should be given especially when the person han-

dling an animal has lesions or cuts that may come into contact with the

animal.

Clinical Signs – Clinical signs are not specic although listlessness,

emaciation, and lameness may occur in rabbits.

Diagnosis – Diagnosis is made by examination of the lymph nodes,

blood, or organs from a fresh dead animal with gross lesions. Carcasses

should be refrigerated and preferably not frozen.

Transmission – Biting arthropods such as ticks or eas may produce lo-

calized tissue damage and allow invasion of the bacteria. Transmission

can also occur when a lesion or cut comes into contact with the bacteria

on the animal.

Public Health Implications – Rabbits with staphylococcosis should not

be consumed due to the fact that lesions resemble tularemia. Tularemia

can have signicant human signicance. Properly washing hands after

handling a wild animal will help reduce the potential for transmission.

TULAREMIA

Introduction – The most

common carriers of tulare-

mia are cottontail rabbits and

rodents such as beavers and

muskrats.

Clinical Signs – Clinical signs

of wildlife with tularemia are

often variable and often go

unnoticed. With live animals

they may become lethargic

or show incoordination. Most

times tularemia is detected

with dead animals. On dead animals, the liver and spleen can have pin-

point white spots on them. In humans, tularemia typically manifests in a

fever, infected sores at the point of entry of the disease, swollen lymph

nodes, and general u-like symptoms that progresses rapidly to debili-

tation.

Diagnosis – Diagnosis can initially be made by noticing the pinpoint

white lesions on the liver and spleen.

Transmission – Tularemia has been found to be transmitted by all known

epidemiologic routes. With terrestrial animals, the transmission is typi-

cally through eas and ticks being passed from one animal to the next.

In aquatic mammals the organism is thought to be primarily waterborne.

Public Health Implications – Tularemia is a life-threatening human

disease and extreme caution should be used when handling animals,

especially cottontail rabbits, beavers, muskrats, and other rodents. Any-

one with potential exposure, especially in conjunction with exhibiting

symptoms, should contact their physician immediately. With prompt an-

tibiotic treatment, few cases are fatal. Fortunately, tularemia is not well

documented in Ohio, but all precautions should be taken when handling

species considered as a vector or in areas where it has been documented.

WEST NILE VIRUS

Introduction – The primary hosts of West Nile Virus are birds. However,

mammals, including humans, and even reptiles can contract the virus.

Clinical Signs – Clinical signs can range from unnoticeable to dead ani-

mals but is variable depending on the species. Some animals will exhib-

it lethargic behavior, lack of coordination, or unresponsiveness.

Diagnosis – A conrmation diagnosis cannot be made by visual signs,

however there are several ways to sample for the virus. Diagnosis con-

rmation in Ohio is only needed when a large number of birds in a par-

ticular area are found dead.

Transmission – Transmission is primarily through bites from mosquitos,

primarily of the Culex genus. However, there have been some studies

that have shown transmission by direct contact with some bird species.

Public Health Implications – West Nile Virus primarily aects birds.

However, humans are susceptible to the disease. In most cases, humans

contract the virus from being bitten by an infected mosquito. Because

there is a possibility of direct transmission from birds, care should be

taken to not handle potentially infected dead birds with bare hands.

Also, care should be taken when working in environments of stagnant

water, which is a common breeding area of the Culex mosquitos, by

using mosquito repellent products or wearing long sleeves and pants,

especially during sunset when the mosquitos become very active.

WHITE-NOSE SYNDROME

Introduction– White-nose syndrome

(WNS) is named for the white fungus

observed growing around the noses of

aected bats. This aggressive fungus

attacks the exposed skin of bats while

they hibernate, resulting in dehydra-

tion, unrest, and increased activity. Af-

fected bats quickly burn through stored

energy and often die in the caves and

mines where they hibernate, or out on

the landscape. Since its discovery, WNS has been conrmed in 27 states

(including Ohio) and Canada. Over 6 million bats have died as a result of

this disease, which continues to spread. As a result of the drastic popu-

lation declines caused by WNS, it has become increasingly important to

reduce other sources of bat mortality. Spores of the fungus that causes

WNS can remain on materials and be transported from one location to an-

other. Decontamination protocols should be followed to reduce the risk of

transmission of the fungus to other bats and locations.

Clinical Signs – Bats with white-nose syndrome are characterized by the

following: white fungus on the body, bats ying outside during the day in

very cold temperatures, bats clustered near the entrance of hibernacula,

or dead and dying bats during winter months.

Diagnosis – A presumptive diagnosis can be made by a bat exhibiting

any of the clinical signs. However, a conrmative diagnosis must be done

in a lab.

Transmission – The fungus often grows into white tufts on the muzzles

of infected bats. The fungus infects the exposed epidermis on bat’s skin

during hibernation, which ultimately causes the death of the bats infect

ed. Bats infected with WNS transmit the disease and spores to other bats

through direct contact with each other. However, experts believe humans

can carry the spores that cause WNS on their clothing from contaminated

sites which increases the spread of the disease. Anything that comes into

contact with a bat should be disposed of in the trash or decontaminated

according to the most recent national decontamination protocols avail-

able at whitenosesyndrome.org. The most common items that require

disposal or decontamination include cones, tubes, chutes, and mesh that

are used to construct one-way doors.

Public Health Implications – White-nose syndrome does not aect hu

man health. However, extreme caution should be taken to eliminate

transmission on equipment and clothing to eliminate the spread from

one location to another.

Center for Disease Control - cdc.gov

Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management – icwdm.org Ohio Department

of Health – odh.ohio.gov

Ohio Division of Wildlife – wildohio.gov

MI Wildlife Disease Manual - http://michigan.gov/dnr/0,1607,7-153-

10370_12150_12220---,00.html

White-Nose Syndrome – whitenosesyndrome.org

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES FOR DISEASE INFORMATION

Chapter 6 – Ethics of Commercial Nuisance Wild

Animal Control Operations

Ethics, although not regulated, could impact the future of the commercial nuisance wild animal control op-

erators not only in Ohio, but nationwide. An unethical action by one operator may result in negative feelings

towards the industry and may lead to legislation, locally or statewide, that takes away the ability to perform

these services. Perception sometimes means everything. A good rule to follow is to act as if your actions will

be viewed on the evening news and think, “How would someone watching the evening news think I am

acting?” The following considerations should be made when performing nuisance wild animal control work:

Consider the safety of other people and pets that may come into contact with your traps. Not everyone is

familiar with trapping and homeowners often do not fully understand how traps work. You should take any

opportunity to show a landowner how a trap operates and abate any fears the homeowner may have as well

as showing them where your traps are set.

Animal care should be given a high priority.

Once you set a trap, you take on the responsibility of care for any animal that goes in the trap, both wild and

domestic. Many homeowners don’t regularly deal with wild animals. While it is easy for you as a professional

to become complacent when dealing with animals, it is important to stay vigilant in taking the best care

possible of any animals that you handle. This responsibility also extends to carrying animals in traps to your

vehicle for removal and when using equipment for handling wild animals such as catch-poles and nets.

Handling animals requires consideration of the safety of the handler, minimizing pain and distress to the

animal and public perception.

You are viewed as the expert.

It is important to not take advantage of homeowners by charging them for services that are not needed or

using scare tactics to secure a job.

Be up front, open, and honest.

It is important to be up front, open, and honest with the landowners as well as adjacent property owners.

Not everyone has the same views of trapping. Explaining why the need for nuisance trapping exists can go

a long way to people understanding the reasons for what you are doing. Also, be honest with homeowners

and the public about what you are doing. For instance, it is better to explain why you cannot relocate a

raccoon because of disease concerns rather than telling them you will relocate it and then euthanizing it.

Be courteous to other trappers.

Nuisance trapping is a necessary service to deal with animals that regulated trapping cannot address, such

as a nesting raccoon in the springtime when trapping season is out. It is important to be respectful of the

fact that regulated trapping is also an important economic industry. It is also important to be courteous to

other commercial nuisance wild animal control operators. Instead of speaking poorly about another person

or company, explain the positive practices you and your company follow.

Continue to develop your knowledge and skills.

New techniques are constantly being developed and new equipment is constantly becoming available. In

contrast, some techniques and equipment may, over time, not be the best methods to use. It is important to

actively educate yourself about the most currently accepted and available options for nuisance wild animal

control operators. There are many options including magazines, workshops, and conferences to stay current

with the most up-to-date methods and technology.

Be professional.

Always make a good rst impression. This will help you gain work through referrals and repeat customers,

and shows all commercial nuisance wild animal control operators in a good light. It is not appropriate to use

profanity when on a job site. Be considerate in comments that are made regarding the euthanasia of ani-

mals. You may be recorded or video-taped. You should also strive to keep a clean, professional appearance.

It is also important to make sure all your equipment is in proper working order.

Be complete when working on a job.

You should ensure that when you are done with a nuisance wild animal job that there is little likelihood of

the homeowner experiencing the problem again. Finishing the job with proper exclusion techniques or

properly stopping access is important. If you are not able to complete a job (such as repair siding), direct the

homeowner to a person that can perform the necessary work. In addition, follow up with the homeowner to

ensure that the work was completed. A follow up call can go a long way to getting future business.