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Walden University
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
This is to certify that the doctoral study by
Lombo S. Lombo
has been found to be complete and satisfactory in all respects,
and that any and all revisions required by
the review committee have been made.
Review Committee
Dr. Paul Englesberg, Committee Chairperson, Education Faculty
Dr. Mari Vawn Tinney, Committee Member, Education Faculty
Dr. Donald Yarosz, University Reviewer, Education Faculty
Chief Academic Officer
Eric Riedel, Ph.D.
Abstract
Second Chance for School Dropouts in Kenya through Adult Education
by
Lombo S. Lombo
MA, Presbyterian Theological Seminary Seoul, Korea, 1987
BA, Pan Africa Christian University, 1984
Doctoral Study Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Education
Walden University
June 2015
Abstract
Most Kenyan high school dropouts do not have a school reentry option, and without a
high school diploma, they lack access to tertiary or higher education institutions for
training and career development. This case study was an investigation of how an adult
learning center in Kenya educated high school dropouts and helped them to gain access
to vocational training or higher education. The research questions addressed the
pedagogy, learning experiences, and curriculum of the Baraka Adult Learning Center
(BALC) and also focused on how the BALC met students’ aspirations, needs, and goals
based on the perceptions of teachers and adult learners. The conceptual framework was
based on liberatory education theory, transformative learning theory, and andragogy.
Data collected from classroom observations, curriculum review, and interviews with 9
current students, 3 former students, 5 teachers, and the principal were analyzed
inductively by sorting and coding to generate emergent themes. The results of the study
indicated that instructors followed the regular high school curriculum with little
adaptation and lacked training about teaching adult learners and self-directed learning
approaches. The adult learners perceived returning to school as getting a second chance.
A professional development project for BALC instructors was developed to address
some of the needs identified in the study. This training could have an impact on the adult
learners by better assisting them to gain access to vocational training and higher
education.
Second Chance for School Dropouts in Kenya through Adult Education
Lombo S. Lombo
MA, Presbyterian Theological Seminary Seoul, Korea, 1987
BA, Pan Africa Christian University, 1984
Doctoral Study Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Education
Walden University
June 2015
Dedication
I would like to dedicate this study to the voiceless and powerless school dropouts
in Kenya, who struggle through life wishing that they could be given a second chance of
going back to school. It is my hope this study will be a wakeup call to leaders charged
with the responsibility of making educational policies in Kenya. May there be policies
which give school dropouts hope of going back to school and fulfilling their dreams.
Acknowledgments
I would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge key people who have helped
to guide me through this long and challenging journey. First, I would like to thank my
dear wife, Juliana W. Simba, who has always been my inspiration, supporter, and loved
me regardless. When the doctoral journey became frustrating, you were very
encouraging and caring. You are an awesome wife, thank you.
Second, I would like to thank my children who had to put up with a student dad
for a long time. Deep within me, I have always desired to be a role model to all of you
and it is my hope that I have set precedence for your academic goals.
Third, I would like to thank Dr. Paul Englesberg and Dr. Mari Tinney because
without them, this study would not have been possible. Both of you were real mentors to
me. You understood my cross-cultural challenges and were able to guide me to the end.
You were a perfect committee. You will always be remembered. And lastly, I thank
Mrs. Elizabeth Crowson Byrd, my son’s mother-in-law who did the hard work of editing
my dissertation. To you, I am very grateful.
i
Table of Contents
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... vi
List of Figures ................................................................................................................... vii
Section 1: The Problem ........................................................................................................1
Introduction ....................................................................................................................1
Definition of the Problem ..............................................................................................2
Rationale ........................................................................................................................4
Evidence of the Problem at the Local Level ........................................................... 4
Evidence of the Problem from the Professional Literature ..................................... 7
Definitions....................................................................................................................10
Significance..................................................................................................................10
Guiding/Research Question .........................................................................................13
Review of the Literature ..............................................................................................13
Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................... 14
Historical Perspective of Education in Kenya ...................................................... 16
School Dropouts.................................................................................................... 18
Dropouts in Sub-Saharan Africa ........................................................................... 21
High School Dropout Patterns .............................................................................. 23
The Role of Gender in School Attrition ................................................................ 25
High School Dropout Prevention .......................................................................... 27
School Completion Programs and Models ........................................................... 28
Implications..................................................................................................................32
Summary ......................................................................................................................33
ii
Introduction ..................................................................................................................35
Research Design...........................................................................................................35
Setting and Sample Selection.......................................................................................38
Data Sources ................................................................................................................40
Data Collection ............................................................................................................40
Data from Interviews ............................................................................................ 42
Data Collected from Observations ........................................................................ 42
The Role of the Researcher ................................................................................... 43
Data Analysis ...............................................................................................................44
Ethical Treatment of Participation ...............................................................................46
Findings........................................................................................................................47
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 47
The Adult Learning Center ................................................................................... 47
The Instructors ...................................................................................................... 50
The Administration ............................................................................................... 50
Results of the Survey ...................................................................................................51
Adult Learners Perspective of Going Back to School .......................................... 51
Poverty the Major Cause of Dropping Out of School........................................... 53
Other Causes of Dropping Out of School ............................................................. 53
Return to School for Better Economic Future ...................................................... 54
Students’ Aspirations for Achieving High School Diploma................................. 56
Preparation for Exit Exam (KSCE)....................................................................... 59
Adapting the Secondary School Curriculum by Adult Education Instructors .............62
iii
Alternative Curriculum and Assessment .............................................................. 67
Methods Instructors Apply to Teach Adult Learner ....................................................69
Instructors’ Conflict between Pedagogy and Andragogy Approaches ................. 69
Dominant Attitude by Instructors and Students’ Passivity ................................... 69
Shortfalls in Methodology .................................................................................... 71
Instructors Resilience and Lack of Teaching Materials ........................................ 73
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................75
Data Interpretation .......................................................................................................77
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................85
Section 3: The Project ........................................................................................................86
Introduction ..................................................................................................................86
Description and Goals ..................................................................................................88
Addressing the Identified Problem ....................................................................... 88
Goals and Objectives ............................................................................................ 89
Rationale ......................................................................................................................90
Review of the Literature ..............................................................................................90
Professional Development ...........................................................................................91
Using Microteaching in Professional Development ............................................. 92
Microteaching as a Teacher Training Tool ........................................................... 93
Pedagogy and Andragogy Approaches ........................................................................94
Self-Directed learning (SDL) ................................................................................ 95
Teaching Models in Relation to Self-Directed Learning ...................................... 96
Self –Management Approaches ...................................................................................97
iv
Motivation ............................................................................................................. 97
Time Management: ............................................................................................... 98
Physical and Social Environment ....................................................................... 100
Learning Techniques ..................................................................................................101
Practice Testing Technique ................................................................................. 101
Spacing Effect Technique ................................................................................... 102
Implementation ..........................................................................................................104
Potential Resources and Existing Supports......................................................... 104
Potential Barriers ................................................................................................ 105
Proposal for Implementation and Timetable....................................................... 105
Roles and Responsibilities of Student and Others .............................................. 106
Project Evaluation ......................................................................................................106
Implications Including Social Change .......................................................................107
Local Community ............................................................................................... 107
Far-Reaching ....................................................................................................... 108
Conclusion .................................................................................................................108
Section 4: Reflections and Conclusions ...........................................................................109
Introduction ................................................................................................................109
Project Strengths ........................................................................................................109
Recommendations for Remediation of Limitations ...................................................110
Scholarship .................................................................................................................111
Project Development and Evaluation .........................................................................112
Leadership and Change ..............................................................................................113
v
Analysis of Self as Scholar and Practitioner ..............................................................114
Analysis of Self as Project Developer .......................................................................116
The Project’s Potential Impact on Social Change......................................................117
Implications, Applications, and Directions for Future Research ...............................118
Conclusion .................................................................................................................120
References ........................................................................................................................122
Appendix A: The Project .................................................................................................136
Appendix B: Guiding Questions for Current Students ....................................................167
Appendix C: Guiding Questions for Former Students .....................................................169
Appendix D: Guiding Questions for Instructors ..............................................................170
Appendix E: Guiding Questions for the Principal ...........................................................172
Appendix F: Classroom Observation Guide ....................................................................173
vi
List of Tables
Table 1. Enrolment and Dropout Rates in Secondary Education in Kenya 2002-2003 ... 19
Table 2. Enrolment and Dropout Rates in Secondary Education in Kericho County
2004-2006 ................................................................................................................. 20
Table 3. Students Enrolled in the Adult Center in May, 2014…………………………...49
Table 4. Subjects for Forms 1 and 2 ................................................................................. 63
Table 5. Subjects for Forms 3 and 4 ................................................................................. 64
Table 6. Subjects offered at BALC ................................................................................... 65
vii
List of Figures
Figure 1. Microteaching procedure ....................................................................................94
1
Section 1: The Problem
Introduction
Returning to school for school dropouts poses a challenge to school
administrators and education officials all over the world. The United States provides
General Education Development (GED) for school dropouts, which enables graduates to
join schools of higher learning, as well as the job market. Emphasizing why GED
graduates should aim at attending some college, Smith (2010) noted, “Everyone in the
basic education and literacy field understands that adults with GED credentials need to
complete at least some college in order to get a daily living wage job” (p.185). Thus, the
GED allows these high school dropouts a second change at college and at earning a
livable wage.
Kenyan high school dropouts have no clear path for going back to school. The
adult education program in Kenya does not have an equivalent of the GED program in
the United States. My involvement with the Kenyan population as a teacher made me
realize that school dropouts cannot find jobs because they have no access to tertiary
institutions where they can develop vocational skills. Most tertiary institutions require a
high school diploma for admission. Kenyan adults who want to get a high school diploma
go back to regular high schools where they learn in the same classrooms with teenagers.
For adults to be in the same class with teenagers should present a challenge to the
teacher, the teenage students and the adult learner. It is a challenge because the methods
used to teach children are different from the methods used to teach adults.
2
Therefore, because adults and children are at different intellectual, physical, and
emotional developmental levels, it is necessary to apply different teaching methodologies
for adults and children (Tolutiene & Domarkiene, 2010). The Kenyan Ministry of
Education does not have policies on students’ age limitations. At the age of 5 or 6 years,
children join first grade and they complete high school at the age of 18. Although this is
usually the case, it is not unusual to find 15-year- old students still in primary school and
students over 21 years in high school. Most of the Kenyan high school dropouts rarely go
back to school; hence, they are subjected to joblessness and poverty for life.
Definition of the Problem
The Kenyan Ministry of Education has developed a policy for adult continuing
education by providing literacy programs which teaches basic reading, writing and simple
numerical skills. The aim of the literacy programs is to provide knowledge and skills to
adults and out-of-school youths to make them economically productive members of the
society. The policy also provides for continuing education programs, community
education and extension programs (Kenya Ministry of Education, 2010). This document
has a strong emphasis on adult literacy. Continuing education at basic education (primary
and secondary school) level is nonexistent, save for a few adult learning centers, which
have come up in the last several years.
Kenyan universities have embraced continuing education through parallel
programs being implemented by public universities (Wangenge-Ouma, 2012). These
programs enroll mature students and students who cannot gain admission to public
universities as regular students. However, mature students must pay higher fees because
3
they are not eligible for government subsidy (Wangenge-Ouma, 2012; Wangenge-Ouma
& Nafuko, 2011). Continuing education takes place, but only for those who already have
the required minimum entry to higher education.
Kenyan high school dropouts do not qualify for admission to higher education
because Kenya does not have school reentry programs for high school dropouts. Unlike
the USA, where community colleges give school dropouts a second chance, and where
students can take the GED exam and reenter educational mainstream Kenyan colleges
and universities do not have provisions for people who have not completed high school.
Students must have a high school diploma to gain admission to a college. Kenyan
high school dropouts have a slim chance of attaining the admission requirements for
tertiary and higher learning institutions. Community education and extension programs
are not within the scope of this study. It is, however, worth mentioning that these
programs have been used to educate people on health issues such as HIV/AIDS and other
health care matters. According to the Kenya Ministry of Education, extension programs
have also been used in agriculture when educating communities on good farming
methods and food security (Kenya Ministry of Education, 2010).
According to my discussion with an education official, the Kenyan Ministry of
Education has started some adult learning centers for high school dropouts to serve as an
alternative to high school completion and gain access to vocational training and higher
education. The schools prepare adult learners for secondary exams (D. Munyi, personal
communication, January 21, 2013). Baraka Adult Learning Center (BALC), in an urban
central city, and other similar schools in the country, are part of the government initiative
4
to deal with the problem of school dropouts in the Kenya. The extent to which these adult
learning centers are providing an alternative route to high school graduation and higher
education is not known because of the lack of current research on high school dropout
intervention in Kenya.
Rationale
Evidence of the Problem at the Local Level
High school dropouts in Kenya have limited chances of returning to school and
continuing with education with exception of few adult education schools being
established few years ago. For many years I worked with communities in Southern Kenya
where I met many high school dropouts who could not make any educational progress
and also do not have enough education to earn a living. In 2013, I went to Kenya and
tried to find out how school dropouts are looking for opportunities to return to school. I
found out that adult learning centers are coming up mainly in the cities and that school
dropouts are willing to go back to school. With few secondary schools, mainly in the
urban areas, people are relocating from their homes to the cities to attend school. An
official in the Ministry of Education informed me, a mother of four moved from her rural
home in Southern Kenya to Nairobi so as to go to one of the adult learning centers (A.
Muli , personal communication, January 20, 2013).
I visited the Department of Adult Learning and Continuing Education in Nairobi.
An official in the department informed me that the Kenya government was dealing with
the problem of school dropouts by establishing adult learning centers as a parallel
program in public primary schools. The official further explained that adult learners use
5
the same facilities used by primary school children. In that way, many schools could be
established because there is no problem with obtaining physical facilities and because the
public primary schools have already been built (D. Munyi, personal communication,
January 21, 2013). According to the official, 50 secondary schools for adults have been
established in the country.
There is demand for alternative access to higher education. Adult literacy
education in Kenya has been erroneously synonymous to adult learning or adult
education. These terms, though similar, are different. Further clarification of these two
terminologies will be discussed later in this study.
An adult literacy program has been going on in Kenya for a long time (Team
Kenya, 2008). Until 2010, the activities of adult education were administered by the
Ministry of Gender, Sports, Culture and Social Services (Kenya Country Team, 2010).
This meant there was a notable disconnect between adult educations programs being
administered by a non-educational ministry and the Ministry of Education, which
oversees continuing education. Stakeholders of adult learning noticed this disconnect, and
they started talking about aligning adult learning education to the Ministry of Education
institutions.
Republic of Kenya Ministry Report (2010) noted, efforts were being made to
align adult education with other essential institutions in the Education Ministry such as
Kenya Institute of Education (KIE) and Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC) to
ensure curriculum development and testing of adult students. The Department of Adult
Education is now under the Ministry of Education. During my visit to Kenya in January,
6
2013, the senior official I talked to at the Directorate of Adult Education and Continuing
Education, informed me that for the Directorate to be effective, some policies needed to
be passed by the National Assembly (D. Munyi, personal communications, January,
2013). If passed, the policies would allow the directorate to have more structured adult
education, both at primary secondary school level.
As the Directorate of Adult Education awaits legislation to be put in place, every
year there are large numbers of school dropouts who leave school never to return.
Kenyan school dropouts face a challenge of unemployment. They are not able to get jobs
because colleges, where they could train to acquire skills, cannot admit them due to their
lack of a high school diploma. So the future of a Kenyan high school dropout is
predetermined to poverty, joblessness and marginalization. The solution is to have a more
modern, official way of going back to school; or, to put it in another way, they need to be
given a second chance. In their effort to get back to school, some school dropouts who try
to go back to regular secondary schools are faced with many challenges and, hence, may
dropout again. There is demand for adult learning centers, but only few of them have
been opened in the big cities in Kenya. Some of the schools are private while others have
been established as parallel institutions within existing public primary schools.
In this study, I explored how one adult learning center, BALC, located in a central
urban city in Kenya, is meeting the needs, goals, and aspirations of its adult learners. This
school operates in a compound of a public primary school. During my discussion with the
principal of the school, he said that the school started in 2004, and the enrollment has
been growing very rapidly. According to the principal, the population of the school was
7
350 students, in both the primary and the secondary divisions. The principal said the
center is run with the assistance of The Ministry of Education, under the supervision of
The Directorate of Adult Learning and Continuing Education (J. Ogutu, personal
communication, January 21, 2013).
Evidence of the Problem from the Professional Literature
Researchers have not addressed the dropout problem in Kenya. However,
discussions with the Kenya’s Ministry of Education official showed that many adult
education schools are being established both by the Kenyan government and individuals
because school dropouts are ready to go back to school. The official said within a short
period 50 adult education school had been established in the country (D. Munyi, personal
communications, January, 2013). The site was chosen after recommendations from the
Ministry of Education official who described the adult learning center as one of the most
established adult education schools in the country. The center is also the oldest in the
country. During my previous visit to BALC, I discovered that the center had a large
number of adult learners who were pursuing both primary and secondary education
levels. The center was founded in 1979 as adult literacy center. However, in 1999 the
center started a secondary school section and started admitting high school dropouts
(BALC principal, personal communication, January, 2013).
The country, like many developing countries, relies on international agencies for
guidance on how to implement her developmental agenda. At the beginning of the 21st
century, the United Nations (UN) came up with a developmental agenda known as
Millennium Developmental Goals (MDG’s). In its quest to encourage development in its
8
189 member states, the UN gave some developmental guidelines for focusing on
achieving the MDG’s. The UN agenda for the MDG’s is to encourage countries to
implement one of its major educational goals known as Universal Primary Education
(UPE). Countries are encouraged to implement UPE by ensuring that all children
complete primary education (Kikechi, Kisebe, Gitai, & Sindabi, 2012). International
agencies such as the UN and others have helped many developing countries foster
development programs, but individual countries still have the responsibility of
developing their own programs.
The educational needs, the aspirations of Kenyans, and the development agenda
should not even be determined by the Kenyan government, let alone international
agencies. It should be decentralized to boards, communities, and stakeholders (Mulwa,
Kimiti, Kituka, & Muema, 2011). As Kenya leaders talked of the implementation of
MDG’s, little attention was focused on school dropouts.
UPE is good, but again, this is too little for skills development. The literal and
numerical skills learned in primary school are not enough to guarantee young people
employment and to break from the poverty cycle (Amukowa, 2013). While primary
education plays the first level of basic education, secondary school is the final level of
basic education, and it is crucial for preparing students to join vocational training and
higher education institutions.
Along with the implementation of MDG’s Kenyan government is implementing a
long term development program dubbed Vision 2030. Vision 2030 addresses education as
an important vehicle to propel the country into the realization of its vision. Cheserek and
9
Mugalavai (2012) underscored the aims of the Vision 2030 in education and training are
to ensure provision of both quality education as well as being globally competitive. In
line with Vision 2030, Kenya has been implementing Free Primary Program since 2003
with the aim of having all the school age children enrolled in school by 2012. The
purpose of Free Primary Education is to eradicate illiteracy, but the challenge of
transitioning from primary education to secondary and higher education still remains
(Cheserek & Mugalavai, 2012).
The problem of school attrition is not only in secondary schools but in primary
schools as well. Werunga, Musera, and Sandibi (2011) noted that the national mean of
the students who proceed to high school after KCPE is 70%, thus having 30% of the
students dropping out at primary school level in their descriptive survey to assess the
transition rate of students from primary schools to secondary schools in Taita Taveta
County. The researchers found that Taita Taveta County’s primary-secondary transition
rate was lower than the national mean by 9.1% (Werunga et al., 2011). Of the 70% who
proceed to secondary, not all go ahead and graduate in high school after 4 years.
According to Werunga et al. (2011), the factors which influenced transition included lack
of money, early marriage (especially for girls), long distances to school and therefore,
students finding it difficult to go on foot, peer influence, and lack of interest in schooling.
Kenyan programs for high school dropouts returning to school are not fully
developed. However, there are few countries in Africa that have established programs for
high school completion such as South Africa. According to as cited in Brown (2009), in
South Africa, high school dropouts are allowed to go back to complete their high school
10
diploma. The Malawian government developed a return to school program for youths
who drop out school (Nampota, 2009). More studies on secondary school dropouts are
mentioned later in this study in the literature review section.
Definitions
Adult Continuing Education (ACE): according to Kenyan Ministry of Education,
this is the entire body of learning process within the perspective of lifelong learning
whereby adults and out of school youth are given opportunities to develop their abilities,
enrich their knowledge and improve their skills to meet both their own needs and those of
the society (Kenya Ministry of Education, 2010,)
Basic education: primary and secondary education. The current Kenyan education
is dubbed as an 8-4-4 system whereby children take 8 years in their primary education,
secondary school takes 4 years, and 4 years for university education.
The Kenya Certificate of Primary Examination (KCPE): a standardized exit
examination taken by all Kenyan primary school students in their eighth grade.
The Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE): an exam which high
school students take to acquire a high school diploma. The Kenyan Ministry of Education
administers a standardized exit exam for all the 12th grade students graduating from high
school. Employers, colleges and universities require KCSE diploma to determine
qualification for a job or admission to college/university.
Significance
A high school diploma plays a crucial role in vocational and skills development. It
is the pivotal point that determines whether one would proceed to college, where one
11
could train and acquire skills, or leave school and look for employment in the job market.
Although there could be some exceptions, people with a low level of education are
usually at the bottom of the socio-economic ladder. In any country, and Kenya is not an
exception, there are more unemployed people who have low or no education at all
compared to people with a high level of education and trained professionals (Patrick,
2012). Kenyan primary school and high school dropouts find themselves with challenges
of getting suitable jobs and may end up with low income jobs or be subjected to life of
poverty. UNESCO (as cited in Julius, 2011) underscored that in 2007, the children who
were out of school from Sub-Saharan Africa were 72 million. The number will top 56
million by 2015 if the current trend continues.
The literature that I reviewed on Kenya did not show whether high school
dropouts are linked with crime. However, studies show that high school dropouts in the
USA are more likely to become involved with the justice system than their educated
peers and that more than two thirds of inmates in state prisons have no high school
diploma (Bloom, 2010). Due to lack of high school diploma, Kenyan high school
dropouts would likely be poverty stricken, since they would not be able to find good
paying jobs (Julius & Bawane, 2011).
Education plays an important role in socio-economic development, therefore
education is the backbone of development of individuals and nations and it is generally
accepted as the main exit route from poverty (Julius & Bawane, 2011). If this argument is
true, then the fate of high school dropouts is sealed. They remain in poverty, and their
children too may not be able to continue with school beyond high school. Julius and
12
Bawane (2011) wrote about financing education in Kenya and noted that high costs of
schooling make education less affordable to the poor.
It is not my intention to focus on policies in this study. However, there were
major policy changes that took place in the Kenyan Department of Adult Learning in
2010. To highlight how adult learners may benefit from the changes, it is important for
me to mention adult education policy changes without necessarily focusing on policy in
my study. The transfer of the Department of Adult Literacy from Ministry of Culture and
Social Services to the Ministry of Education in 2010 was a major policy change.
The Ministry of Education is also working on policies for Adult and Continuing
Education (Team Kenya, 2010). This move gives ACE providers access to standardized
exams provided by the Ministry of Education through its agent, Kenya National
Examination Council (KNEC). ACE providers include various ministries, Civil Society
Organizations (CSOs), research institutions, private sector and individuals. (Kenya
Ministry of Education, 2010). Although the ACE policies acknowledge that continuing
education benefits people who are out of school, people from poverty stricken areas,
inmates, and working people who may need to develop entrepreneurial skills, high school
dropouts are not mentioned in the policy document.
In the development of ACE policies, it was important that the Kenya Ministry of
Education underscored the importance of establishment of adult learning centers.
However, there is no encouragement for school dropouts to go back to school. The policy
document does not mention how and where teachers of adult learning centers teacher are
trained. This means teachers would teach adult learners using the traditional pedagogical
13
approaches. The ACE does not have a set curriculum and exam for adult learning center
students. The only curriculum and the exam available for secondary school adult learners
is the regular secondary school curriculum known as Kenya Certificate of Secondary
Education (KCSE).
Guiding/Research Question
In this qualitative study, I explored how BALC is meeting the goals and
aspirations of high school dropouts by providing an alternative access to higher education
and vocational training. The major research question to guide this study was: How do
teachers and adult learners in BALC perceive that the school is meeting the aspirations,
needs and goals of the students? In order to address this question, the following
subquestions also guided the study:
1. How do adult instructors perceive the curriculum and adapt to the regular
secondary school curriculum?
2. What are the adult learners’ perspectives on going back to school?
3. What methods do teachers apply in instructing adult learners at the school?
Review of the Literature
In this section, I review current and historical literature on high school dropouts.
The subtopics will include historical perspective in Kenya, the current situation of
Kenyan education highlighting the plight of high school dropouts in Sub-Saharan African
countries, high school dropout prevention and the mitigations in place to ensure
continuing education for school dropouts, the international educational approach to
school dropouts, and various programs to ensure continuing education for school
14
dropouts. A context for social change demonstrated the need for change in the way the
Kenyan government (Ministry of Education) handles adult learning. In this review, I
proceed to show the need for establishing both adult secondary education in Kenya as
well as having a standardized exam for adult learners to gain a high school or high school
equivalent diploma.
Conceptual Framework
Social constructivist researchers attempted to understand the multiple different
perspectives of participants by getting involved in the reality of the participants and
interacting with them in a meaningful way (Lodico, Spaulding, & Voegtle, 2010). In this
study, I assumed that high school dropouts need to be empowered to gain access to
vocational training and higher education. Advocacy, or liberatory, framework
researchers, like social constructivists researchers, assume that there are many realities;
however, they go beyond social constructivists and assume that researchers are to
influence research by seeking to improve lives of people with little power who have been
marginalized by oppressive systems.
Another term which is close to liberatory theory is emancipatory. Emancipatory
learning can free people from personal and environmental circumstances preventing them
from gaining control of their world and lives (Brookfield, 2010; Lodico et al., 2010).
Advocacy theory is also called critical theory paradigm, which refers to exposing both
beliefs and practices that deny people their freedom, justice and democracy (Glesne,
2011). Critical theory paradigm is closely related to liberation education. Explaining
liberation education, Freire (1970) noted that, “the teacher is no longer merely the one
15
who teaches but one who is himself taught in dialogue with students, who are in turn
while being taught also teach” (p.80).
The transition of adolescent learners from high school to adult education poses
challenges to instructors and curriculum planners. Most adult instructors were trained in
pedagogical approach to teaching.
Adult learning theories have been developed over time describing adult cognition
as it relates to life experience and the variations depending on individual’s social,
economic, cultural, racial, and gender background (Goddu, 2012). Transformative
learning theory was also applied in this study. Transformative learning theory
encompasses cognitive and emotional dimensions (Mezirow, 1997). Transformative
learning theory has two components, which are: (a) include habits of mind habits, and (b)
individual’s point of view. The habits of mind are characterized by being broad, abstract,
and influenced by a set of codes. Ethnocentrism, where an individual could see another
group as inferior, could serve as a good example of habits of mind. Point of view includes
the stereotypes people may have towards individuals or groups (Mezirow, 1997).
According to Mezirow (1997) there are four processes of learning.
Explaining the four processes of learning, Mezirow (1997), first elaborated an
existing viewpoint where one can seek more evidence in advancing his/her stereotype
concerning groups and expanding the range or intensify one’s point of view. The second
way of learning is developing new set practices. The third way people learn is to have a
transformative approach their point of view. Finally ethnocentric habits of mind may be
transformed by the perspective one has towards other groups which are not his own and
16
by checking his own biases. Transformative learning therefore advocates for change
which is of great importance in adults. Knowles (1980) formulated andragogy approach
which goes further than transformative approaches.
Introducing andragogy, Knowles (1980) argued, adults do want to be self-
directing. Advancing Knowles concept of andragogy, Henschke (2011), described
andragogy as the process of assisting adults learn. Adult learning is distinguished from
childhood learning. The difference is based on the assumptions of the learners and also
on the teaching- learning concept (Chan, 2010; Kungu & Machtmes, 2009)
In this study, I also examined the transition from adolescent learners in high
school to adult learners in adult learning center, or to put it in another way, transition
from pedagogy to andragogy. An adult learner is an independent individual with free
choices, personal aims, and internal motivations and can identify principal types of
motives, such as professional and personal development (Pew, 2007; Tolutiene &
Domarkiene, 2010). An adult learner is able to identify his educational needs and choose
to pursue a specific path as he/she works towards personal and professional development
Historical Perspective of Education in Kenya
Education in Kenya was brought by Christian missionaries whose main concern
was to preach the word of God. It was not until after the First World War that the British
colonial government took some measure with regard to African education. Realizing that
it could not be a spectator anymore, the colonial government needed to be a key player in
education by joining Christian missions. In 1911, so as to help the Christian missions, the
department of education was established (Ojiambo, 2009). After the establishment of the
17
Department of Education, there were several commissions and reports which were
created to improve and reform Kenyan education. These included: the East Africa
Protectorate Education Commission of 1919, and the Phelps-Strokes Commission of
1912-1925, the two commissions which formed the backbone of Kenyan education
(Amukowa, 2013). The aim of the commissions was to train Kenyan people on matters of
agriculture, health, develop native industries and self-management (Ojiambo, 2009;
Amukowa, 2013).
According to Amukowa (2013), the Beecher Committee of 1949 dealt with
administration and financing of African education. The Binns Commission of 1952,
recommended teacher training and teacher development. The recommendations were
implemented during both colonial and post-colonial periods (Amukowa, 2013). The
Ominde commission of 1964, organized education during and after independence, The
Mackay report of 1984, recommended a second university. (University of Nairobi was
the only university).The Mackay report retained The Ominde’s national goals of
education and training (Ojiambo, 2009; Amukowa, 2013).
According to Amukowa (2013), the Koech report of 2000 recommended
integration of total quality education and training. This move proved to be expensive and
therefore, was not implemented. The Kamunge report of 2008 touched on improving
levels of access to education, retention, completion, equity, quality, relevance, transition
and efficiency of the education sector. The report also recommended the beginning of the
8-4-4 system of education (Cheserek & Mugalavai, 2012; Ojiambo, 2009). These
18
commissions and reports did not directly mention the development of Adult Continuing
Education (ACE).
However, according to Wosyanju (n.d.), in the 1960s and 1970s there were
strategies and approaches by the Kenya government to promote ACE. Wosyanju (n.d.)
observed that the first approach was the realization that there were many players
interested with the ACE and with allowing the diverse players to be involved in providing
ACE. The players included nongovernment organizations (NGOs) and faith based
organizations (FBOs). There was a need to come up with a strategy of promoting ACE.
The strategy included coordination of educational services for adults and the
establishment of Board of Adult Education (BAE).
Wosyanju (n.d.) further noted that the second approach was implementing a
program called Functional Literacy. The Functional Literacy program targeted needs of
the audience. The program was replicated in other parts of the country. Another strategy
was a 5 year literacy campaign planned for 1979 to 1983 which resulted in the
establishment of a fully-fledged Department of Adult Education (currently known as
Directorate of Adult and Continuing Education) in 1979 (Team Kenya, 2010). Kenya’s
ACE department has three divisions; literacy program, which deals with literacy and post
literacy programs, continuing education which builds on previously acquired knowledge
and skills, and community education and extension programs (Team Kenya, 2010).
School Dropouts
Referring to a Republic of Kenya survey from 2003, Sang, Koros, and Bosire
(2013) revealed that less than 60% of pupils who graduated from primary schools were
19
admitted to secondary schools. Table 1 summarizes the enrolment and dropouts in
secondary education in Kenya in 2002 and 2003.
Table 1
Enrolment and Dropout Rates in Secondary Education in Kenya 2002-2003
Year
No. of
sec.
schools
Enrolment Total Dropout percentages Total
Males Females Males Females
2002 2834 336437 383400 719837 20495 (6%)
50802
(17.9%)
71208
2003 2878 341807 390581 732388 20922(6.1%)
17.8% 72535
Total 5712 678244 633981 1452225 4137 102415 143743
Note: An Overview of Human Development Through Education and Training: Policies
and Program Priorities, by Ministry of Education Science and Technology (2003),
Nairobi, Kenya: Government Printers.
The national dropout rate in 2002 was 17.9% and 6% for females and males
respectively with a total rate of 10%. The rate for dropouts in 2003 was 17.8% for
females and 6.1% for males, and similarly, the total dropout rate for 2003 was 10%.
Since this figure represents the national dropout rates, rates from some counties could be
higher than in others.
The literature review revealed that there was only one study on high school
dropouts in Kenya. Prior to my study, a study was done in Kericho County, which is one
of the 47 counties in Kenya. The results of the study show that Kericho is a true
20
representative of the other counties in Kenya. It shows a typical picture of the problems
of dropouts in Kenya (Sang et al., 2013). Table 2 shows enrolment and dropout rates in
secondary education in Kericho County from 2004 to 2006.
Table 2
Enrolment and Dropout Rates in Secondary Education in Kericho County 2004-2006
Year
No. of sec.
schools
Enrolment Dropout
Males Females Males Females
2004 64 11675 7525 3339 2152
2005 67 12428 7672 3554 2194
2006 71 15885 8965 4543 2564
Total 202 39988 24162 11436 6910
Note: An Analysis on Dropout Levels of Public Secondary Schools in Kericho District in
Relation to Selected School Characteristics, by Anthony Sang (2013), International
Journal, 6(7), 247-259
According to Sang et al. (2013), the dropout rate in Kericho County was 28.6%
with a completion rate of 62%. Comparing the national dropout rate with Kericho
County, it is evident that there are many high school dropouts in Kenya. For Kenyan high
school dropouts to return to school, there has to be an elaborate school re-entry program,
which is not there at the moment. An adult learning center program is yet to be developed
21
and rolled out to all the parts of the country rather than only having these schools started
in cities.
As earlier mentioned, the Department of Adult Learning and Continuing
Education is charged with the responsibility of developing learning centers for adult
learners. However, there are gaps in the research literature review on how school
dropouts reenter school and progress to tertiary institutions and higher learning. Without
departing from one of the main objectives of Adult Continuing Education, which is adult
literacy, there seems to be no progression from adult literacy to post-literacy where
learners are able to reenter the educational mainstream and progress to higher education.
Like Kenya, other Sub Saharan countries have also faced the challenges of school
dropouts.
Dropouts in Sub-Saharan Africa
Literature that I reviewed outside of Kenya revealed that the subject under
discussion has been given wide coverage. Athanasou (2012) described four broad
constructs of adult literacy as follows: the ability to process and understand information,
which is prose literacy; another type of literacy is knowledge and skills information
contained in documents, this construct is known as document literacy; and numeracy
literacy, which is the ability to respond to mathematical demands and problem solving,
which is goal-directed thinking.
Continuing education according to Love (2011), is equated to lifelong learning.
While the situation in Kenya may appear to be unique, a further review of literature for
sub-Saharan Africa would bring this review into perspective. Oduaran and Modise (2009)
22
outlined how adult students in Botswana graduate from low levels of literacy and get
access to higher education. Targeting female dropouts in Botswana junior secondary
schools, Makwinja-Morara (2009) carried out some research on female dropouts. This is
one of the few studies on school dropouts in Africa and therefore since every country is
unique, more similar studies in different parts of Africa may be necessary. Makwinja-
Moraa (2009) observed that Botswana secondary schools fail to provide a large number
of students access to higher education. According to Mwakinja-Morara (2009), about
50% of the students who go through junior secondary schools (Grades 8-10) each year do
not qualify to proceed to higher grades. Mwakinja-Morara (2009) further noted, dropping
out of school could contribute to lower levels of education, and also could result in single
motherhood and reliance on family members for care of children. The research also
challenged the Botswana government to further investigate the issues affecting female
dropouts (Makwinja-Moraa, 2009). A large number of school dropouts in Botswana fail
to find ways to continue studying or developing vocational skills; thus they become
candidates for crime, prostitution, and teenage pregnancy (Makwinja-Moraa, 2009). Also
relating school dropouts with crime Patrick (2012) asserted that youth who dropped out
of school in Nigeria are involved in over 85% of all the criminal activities committed in
the country. Other than this study in Nigeria, studies linking school dropouts with crime
in Sub-Saharan African countries are not available and, hence, I cannot equate school
dropout with criminal activities.
South Africa also faces the challenges of dealing with school dropouts. Flisher,
Townsend, Chikobvu, Lombard, and King (2010), in their qualitative study on high
23
school dropouts in South Africa, noted that 60% of South African students who enrolled
in primary schools in 2003/2004, dropped out before completing high school. In South
Africa, high school dropouts are allowed to go back to complete their high school
diploma. About 35%, of South African girls who dropped out of school because of
pregnancy returned to secondary school (Maharaj, Kaufman, and Richter, as cited in
Brown, 2009).
Another Sub-Saharan African country involved with school dropout program is
Malawi. The Malawian government developed a program for youths who drop out school
(Nampota, 2009). According to the foregoing literature review, it shows that that some
efforts are being made to address the plight of school dropouts in some Sub Saharan
African countries. There are many causes of dropping out of school. This literature
review discusses next some highlights on different high school dropout patterns.
High School Dropout Patterns
The literature review revealed there are many reasons which cause students to
drop out of school. Freudenberg (2007) classified reasons for dropping out of school into
three categories. The first category, individual or family category, is characterized by the
low-income neighborhood, low family support for education, pregnancy, and substance
abuse. The second category is neighborhood or community; one has peers with low
educational aspirations or sibling dropouts. The third category is the school or school
system category; this category accounts for low-income status school population and
racial and ethnic segregation. Other studies support Freudenberg’s (2007) assertion that
low socio-economic factors; race, especially children from minority groups such as
24
African Americans and Hispanics are likely to drop out of school. Other factors include
pregnancy, substance abuse, low test grades, grade repetition, and lack of support by
parents (Blount, 2012; Schoeneberger, 2012; Kim & Hull 2012). Three more factors
which cause students to drop out of school are lack of programs on academic tracking,
having high stakes testing, and lack of support for transition of students moving from
middle school to high school (Blount 2012; Freudenberg 2007).
Kenya does not have racial differences as it is composed mainly of Africans.
However, other factors may account for school attrition. Sang et al. (2013) sought to
analyze the dropout rates of secondary schools in the country. Unlike many countries,
Kenya’s education system has a long tradition of boarding secondary schools. Kenyan
secondary schools are categorized as boarding single sex (either boys or girls), mixed
boarding, day (single sex) or mixed day secondary schools. In Kenya, boarding
secondary schools have more facilities compared to day secondary schools, hence,
competition to get admission into boarding schools is very high. In their study Sang et al.
(2013) examined internal efficiency indicators in secondary schools. The categories of
schools included in their study were boarding secondary schools, day secondary schools,
boys only or girls only, and co-educational secondary schools. The study noted the
dropout rate was higher in day schools than in boarding schools. The study also found
that there was higher dropout rate in tenth grade (Form 2) than the other grades. The
study further indicated that there were higher dropout rates in mixed schools than single
sex boarding schools. The study did not find significance when it compared dropout rate
25
of boys and girls. The researchers pointed out that there should be effective intervention
in the 10th grade.
On secondary school dropout patterns, a study conducted in Nigeria, by Patrick
(2012) sought to understand the dropout pattern of secondary school students in Delta
State, Nigeria. The study revealed higher percentage of dropout in (SSI) ninth grade and a
declined in tenth grade (SS11), higher percentage of dropout of girls was reported in all
categories compared to boys, rural schools reported a higher dropout rate than city
schools, there was a higher dropout rate in mixed schools compared to single sex schools,
and there were more student dropouts in public schools than private schools. In his
conclusion, Patrick (2012) noted that sex was a major determinant of dropping out of
school, followed by the student’s environment. He further observed there could be no
single intervention strategy.
Both Sang et al. (2013) and Patrick (2012) attributed dropping out of school to
economic factors of parents, girls’ pregnancies, and peer pressure. The two studies
indicated that gender was also a part of the investigative equation. These views are also
held by Blount (2012), Schoeneberger (2012) and Freudenberg (2007). The question of
the role of gender in school attrition is very central when considering patterns of school
dropouts. The next topic deals with the role of gender in school dropouts.
The Role of Gender in School Attrition
Although gender may not determine ones success in education, it would be naïve
to suggest that gender does not play any role in dropping out of school. Mwakwinja-
Morara (2009) studied Botswana’s female dropouts in junior secondary schools.
26
Mwakwinja-Morara (2009) noted the reasons for dropping out of school included:
teenage pregnancy, poverty, illness or death in the family probably due to HIV/AIDS,
classroom practices by teachers where boys sit at the front and girls at the back of the
classroom, early marriage, and peer pressure. The study showed that the major
contributing factor of girls dropping out of school was pregnancy. This study agrees with
Patrick’s (2012) that girls are more prone to dropping out of school than boys. However,
there is a gap in literature research in the Kenyan situation on dropout of girls in relation
to boys. The results of the study indicated that mitigation for school dropouts in
Botswana is available in vocational institutions but, girls do not seem to take advantage
of joining these institutions and, hence, they remain unskilled and unemployed
(Mwakwinja-Morara 2009).
Boys who drop out of school cite different reasons. Din, Dad, Iqbal, Javid, & Sha
(2011) studied causes of male dropout rate in Pakistan. The study interviewed students,
teachers and parents. The study revealed that teachers took responsibility for causing
students to dropout because of corporal punishment and lack of showing concern for
student’s needs. Most of the students interviewed noted that they took responsibility for
dropping out because of fear of teachers, and poor performance in mathematics and
English. Parents took responsibility of causing dropping out for their children because of
poverty, illiteracy, lack of awareness of the importance of education and lack of father
figure in the home (Din et al., 2011). This compares well with literature reviewed in the
US where male students were more prone to dropping out of school than female students
Blount (2012). The study did not propose any intervention strategy on how male school
27
dropouts could go back to school and complete high school, or an alternative path to
higher education. Unlike Botswana and Nigeria, there are gaps in the research literature
about the role of gender in school attrition in Kenya. The next theme is on how to prevent
dropping out of school.
High School Dropout Prevention
Dropping out of school is always a challenge to school principals, teachers,
parents, and community. Research and education professionals have come up with
strategies of intervention which include, but are not limited to, mentoring, tutoring at-risk
students, teaching problem solving skills, and relationships. Another is experiential
learning, this strategy makes learning more engaging and interactive. It also helps
students understand how the working world relates with school. Other intervention
strategies are having varied instructional methodologies, having highly qualified teachers,
increasing teacher support, reducing class sizes, and developing relationships between
school and parents (Somers, Owens & Piliawsky, 2009, 2009; Tavakolian & Howel,
2012).
Evaluating school dropout programs, Somers et al. (2009) carried an evaluation
on a program school dropout prevention program designed to prevent ninth grade
students from dropping out of high school. The two major goals of the research were: to
evaluate the effectiveness of the approach carried out with urban at-risk teens, and to
examine career goals and role models of the teens. The results revealed inconsistency of
students on what they identified as career goals between pre-and post-testing. They never
identified with mainstream careers which involved four-year College, except teaching.
28
They identified more with entertainment, sports, and media. The study indicated that the
students lacked understanding of relating high school and college preparedness and
earning potential. The study found more intervention is needed to guide students as early
as in their ninth grade. The students needed to understand the link between classroom
performance and their career path (Somers et al., 2009). On role models, students did not
identify with entertainment, music, sports and media figures as their role models but most
endorsed parents as their role models. The study underscored the power of influence
parents have over their children. Despite the parental influence on their children being
documented in literature, it is often underplayed (Featherston III, 2010; Somers et al.,
2009). Since the role of parents is so crucial to their children, any implementation of
school dropout prevention program should have parents involved.
School Completion Programs and Models
There are different school completion programs which are initiated by different
countries to ensure that school dropouts return to school. Hoffman (2011) discussed how
Norway, Netherlands, Australia, United States and South Korea are approaching the
challenge of school dropouts. Some countries have an elaborate adult education program
which ensures that school dropouts can go back to school and get back to the educational
mainstream. Sweden has high secondary school graduation rate, however, about 20%
drop out of secondary school every year. The Swedish government provides a program
for high school dropouts to go back to school (Alexanderson, 2011). Although the United
States makes efforts to prevent school dropouts, there are also intervention programs for
school dropouts. Bloom (2010) identified the GED as the credentials essential for school
29
dropouts to gain access to postsecondary education. Like the US, Canada has a provision
for high school dropouts to re-enter educational institutions. McGregor and Ryan (2011)
asserted that students who leave high school before graduation have another chance in
adult education programs where they prepare for Ontario Secondary School Diploma.
Great Britain and New South Wales provide Vocational Training Education (VET) to
their school dropouts (Coryton et al., 2009; Forgarty, 2010). It is challenging for adults to
return to school, especially to complete a high school diploma, but many determined
adults take that route for them to advance in their academic quest and vocational
development.
Studies have shown that United States of America uses General Education
Development test (GED) to mitigate for the school dropout problem. The GED testing
was established in 1940’s, after the Second World War to cater for returning soldiers who
had been drafted before they completed high school. This enabled the returning soldiers
to have an opportunity for postsecondary education and benefit from the GI bill (Pulley,
2011). The American Council of Education (ACE), a nonprofit organization, has been
running the GED for over 70 years (Kimberly, 2013). Studies on the GED test together
with analyzed data collected from selected high school dropouts, revealed that the GED
test credentials are worthless (Tuck, 2012). GED earners joining college are more likely
to be placed in remedial courses than high school diploma earners (Tyler, 1998; Hamilton
1998, as in Tuck 2012). Comparing the employability in the US job market of GED
graduates with high school diploma graduates, employments are much higher for high
school graduates than GED recipients. It is also noted that the US army limits recruitment
30
of GED holders to 5%; this is because of their poor performance in the military (Tuck,
2012).
Data from the American Council on Education (2010) revealed that in 2009 over
60% of GED candidates took the GED exam in order to pursue higher education. Only
30% of those indicated their willingness to seek admission in a two-year college, 24%
planned to proceed to vocational training schools, while 20% planned to enroll in a four
year college. On comparison of GED holders and high school graduates, evidence
indicates that the high school diploma holders are more prepared for a four year
Bachelor’s degree than GED earners (Tuck, 2012). A semi-structured youth interview
which compared the value of the GED to the value of high school diploma, and a similar
interview conducted for adults who had taken the GED, gave similar results; whereby,
most participants noted that they would not recommend the GED to others, especially if
they were young and still in school. The respondents endorsed the GED as the last resort.
The conclusion of the study was that the valuation of the GED should not be viewed
through the prism of higher education and the job market only to determine its value; and
the value of the GED presents contradictions, compromises and complexities of
reclaiming education within and outside the regular school system. Finally, the study
revealed that though the GED is not taken seriously, both in the job market and higher
education, at times it can open the door for further personal development. It can also
provide a sense of achievement, according to the youth and adult GED earners (Tuck,
2012). The administrators of the GED program announced changes which, according to
the company, will modernize and prepare students for career studies in college
31
(Kimberly, 2013). The major notable change will be abolishing paper and pencil testing
to use computerized exams instead. A piloted GED computerized testing administered in
2012 with 40,000 students from diverse backgrounds in terms of ages, socioeconomic
classes and computer- skilled levels had a passing rate of 88 percent compared to 71
percent with the paper test (Adams, 2013). How the changes in GED testing will affect
examination takers cannot be known until the new changes become operational and
results can be studied. The United States model is unique the program is specifically
tailored for school dropouts and has been going on for a long time. Unlike in Kenya
where dropouts have little or no access to high school completion, school dropouts in the
United States are provided with a lifeline of alternative access to higher education.
To conduct this literature review multiple sources were used. The primary sources
used were professional journals, web journals and periodicals obtained from Walden
University library. Secondary sources included books written between 2009 and 2014 and
information retrieved from internet sources such as Kenya National Examination Council
Syllabus, Kenya Adult Education Council, and Kenya Institute of education. The terms
used for the search included education in Kenya, secondary education in Kenya, school
dropouts in Kenya, school dropouts, and secondary school dropouts. Other search terms
were: high school dropouts in Kenya, secondary school dropouts, high school dropout
prevention, adult education, adult learning, and adult learning in Kenya.
This subsection discusses the conceptual framework related to the problem in a
manner that justifies the investigation of this problem as a worthwhile scholarly
endeavor. It includes a critical review that documents the broader problem associated
32
with the local problem addressed in the study and is drawn primarily from recent articles
published in acceptable peer-reviewed journals or sound academic journals and texts, or
there is a justification for using other sources. Literature from diverse perspectives is
included as appropriate.
Implications
The Kenyan high school dropouts could be given a lifeline by having another
chance to reenter school and, at least, complete high school. Since the Kenyan
educational structure has very little room for high school dropouts, an alternative route of
accessing vocational training and higher education, other than the traditional high school
diploma which is mainly available for regular high school students could be suitable.
School dropouts are not only disadvantaged due to being placed at a low level income,
but they are also likely to be a liability to the society because of their low wages,
unemployment, and greater likelihood of health problems (Tyler & Lofstrom, 2009).
Kenya’s adult education program does not spell out how high school dropouts
could reenter school as adult learners; how school dropouts adult students could either
take the high school exit exam or an equivalent test. However, has been some initiative
by the Ministry of Education to establish adult learning centers. BALC is one of the few
schools being operated in one of the urban centers in Kenya. Although the center has both
primary and secondary students, in this study I only focused on the secondary school
learners.
Understanding the factors which could be applied to ensure that students who
were returning to school were empowered and given access to vocational and higher
33
education was the focus of this case study. The case study results are not generalized.
However, the project could be useful to educators, researchers and all the stakeholders of
adult education in Kenya. At the end of the study the stakeholders will be given the
results of the study. The principal will be given a full version of the study, while the
teachers and student participants will be emailed a summary of the study.
Three types of projects could have been developed as a result of this study. One
type would involve recommendations to the Ministry of Education for establishing
teacher training programs for adult learners and developing a curriculum for adult
learning centers in the country. A second type would be an empowerment project for
current and future students at BALC. Instead a professional development project was
developed focusing on approaches for teaching adult learners. The implementation of the
project could assist BALC to better prepare its students for the high school diploma exit
exam, as well as providing students with access to higher education.
Summary
High school dropouts can be encouraged to go back to school and complete their
high school diploma or take the high school equivalent exam (GED in case of the USA).
Literature reviewed on high school dropouts showed that while a lot has been done in the
Western countries, Africa in general, and Kenya in particular lags behind. The Kenyan
literature which I reviewed emphasized development of adult literacy but was silent on
school dropouts returning to school and completing high school diploma (KCSE). The
professional literature revealed that African countries can learn from developed countries
to come up with intervention programs for high school dropouts. The U.S. GED model,
34
although it has many critics, has been very successful, therefore, without trying to import
it to Kenya, it could serve as a guide for establishing an equivalent of the high school
diploma for adult learners.
The professional literature which I reviewed, showed the best way of dealing with
the dropout problem is to prevent dropping out of school. The professional literature from
Kenya mentioned very little on dropout prevention. Since dropout prevention is outside
the scope of this study, I focused on high school dropouts who return to the BALC and
how they are being prepared to complete high school and gain access to vocational
training and higher education. In Section 2, I will describe the methodology used in the
study.
35
Section 2: The Methodology
Introduction
In this section, I provide an overview of qualitative research design. I will discuss
the rationale of the research, research design, as well as the role of the researcher. Other
areas which are also discussed include how the setting sample was identified and
discussion on ethical treatment of human subjects. I also discuss how data was collected
and managed.
Research Design
In this study, I chose a qualitative case study to address the study questions.
Through this method, rich data were gathered from students and teachers of BALC using
multiple sources. I collected data from school documents, observations of instructors and
students in classroom, interviews from current students, interviews from former students,
interviews from instructors, and an interview from the principal (for triangulation).
Through understanding the factors that contribute to completion of high school, and
having access to vocational training and higher education, the study results may suggest a
different approach in student motivation, as well as suggest a different approach in
methodology for adult learners at BALC.
I chose a qualitative design over quantitative or mixed method because qualitative
research gives the understanding of how people view and interpret their world (Merriam,
2009). In qualitative research, the researcher does not determine the outcome, and thus all
the variables are not known. However, words or terms emerge and later can be classified
as themes (Creswell, 2012; Yin, 2010). Also, qualitative researchers seek to find people’s
36
meaning in real-life situations and events in which they live, and how that meaning is
constructed, as well as, how people understand their lives and their world (Merriam,
2009; Yin, 2010; Glesne, 2011). Qualitative design enables the researcher to learn how
participants perceive their setting and the way they experience it (Ochieng, 2009).
Case studies are described as particularistic, descriptive and heuristic.
Particularistic means, case studies focus on individual or particular events, situations,
programs or phenomenon. Case studies are also characterized as descriptive, meaning the
final the final report of the case study is a “rich, thick description” (Merriam,2009, p227)
of the phenomenon. Finally, heuristic case studies illuminate the reader’s understanding,
bringing about discovery of new meaning, broadening the reader’s experience or
strengthening what is already known (Merriam, 2010).
There are major strengths in a case study. According to Glesne (2011), strength
lies on lessons that can be learned from a single case by focusing on the complexity
within the case, its uniqueness, and also its linkages to the social context of which it is a
part. The qualitative design fits the purpose of this study. As I explored the phenomenon
of the students in the adult learning center program, I was able to explore the opinions of
each participant in connection to their experience as learners in adult learning center.
BALC gives high school dropouts a second chance, whereby adults return to school and
complete high school, and then take the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education
examination to receive a high school diploma.
Case study is defined by Merriam (2009), as “a qualitative approach in which the
investigator explores a bounded system (case) or multiple bounded systems (cases) over
37
time, through detailed, in-depth data collection, involving multiple sources of
information…and reports a case description and case based themes” (p.43) The purpose
is to gain an in-depth understanding of situations and meanings of either individual or
individuals involved. A thorough data analysis leads to the development of themes and
ultimate understanding of the phenomenon (Creswell, 2012; Hancock & Algozzine,
2011; Merriam, 2009). Merriam (2009) comparing case study with the other qualitative
designs underscores how generalization can be attained from a single unit. On limitations,
case study is faulted on the bias of the researcher (Merriam, 2009).
Taking this consideration into account, I carried out a single, holistic, and
exploratory case study. I embarked on the exploration of the phenomenon surrounding
high school dropouts through the use of multiple sources. The participants, though
coming from different backgrounds, shared the same unique environment of being
students in an adult learning center. This methodology enabled me to study the meaning
of participants’ lives under real-world conditions, representing the views, as well as
perspectives, of the participants. I furthermore considered the contextual environment in
which they lived, allowing room for existing insights and emerging concepts that could
be helpful in explaining their social behavior and made use of multiple sources of
evidence such as interviews and observations instead of relying on a single source (Yin,
2011).
This was a single exploratory case study, for it focused on an issue where there
was one bounded case study (Yin, as cited in Merriam, 2009). A bounded case study
meant that I separated the case for research in terms of physical boundaries, time and
38
place. I was therefore, limited to studying BALC, situated in an urban center in central
Kenya (Creswell, 2012).
Setting and Sample Selection
Qualitative research takes place in real-world, social and everyday life setting
(Yin, 2011). The study took place at the BALC situated in an urban setting in central
Kenya. The center was started by the Directorate of Adult Learning and Continuing
Education, a department of Kenya’s Ministry of Education to intervene for the adult
learners who would like to go back to school. The center has both primary school and
secondary school students with a population of 508 students. This study deals with high
school learners enrolled in the school. There were 341 students in the secondary school
section with ages ranging from 18 to 55 years.
I had made several visits to the facility prior to my data collection, and informed
the principal my intentions. The principal introduced me to all the students in the 12th
grade and informed them of my plans to collect data at the center. I used a purposeful
sample of 18 participants. The criteria for selection of participants were determined by
me, with assistance from the principal. I considered diversity of gender, age, cultural-
background employed or unemployed and marital status. All the men had either their own
businesses or they were employed. The participants included the following: nine current
students, three former students, five teachers, and the principal. I gave all the students in
the 12th grade an initial invitation to participate in a study. The invitation was through a
preselection letter which was distributed to all the twelfth grade students. The letter
39
requested those who would like to know more about the study to attend a meeting at the
school on a specified date and time.
Since the center had more women than men, I selected five women and four men.
The age range for the women was between 19 and 45 years. Three of the women selected
were married and two were single. One woman had her own business and the rest of the
women had no jobs. The age range for the men was between 23 and 40 years. Two men
were married and two were single. In order to select the three former students, through
the assistance of the principal I sent text messages to five former students inviting them
to participate in the study. In the text messages, I asked those who would like to know
more to attend a meeting at the school on a specified date and time, or call me for more
details. Diversity of gender, age, cultural background, continuing education, employed or
unemployed were considered during the selection of the graduates. Out of five former
students, three men responded and indicated that they would be willing to participate.
Although one woman was invited, she was not available to participate in the study.
The next group that I needed to select was the five instructors. I determined the
selection on the basis of the subject area each instructor taught. All the instructors who
were selected had at least 2 years of teaching experience at the school. I first selected
teachers who taught mathematics, sciences, and English. The selection of the remaining
two teachers was determined by gender and the subject area each one taught. Gender was
considered; however, the center had only one female instructor. I therefore selected four
men and one woman. Since saturation of data was reached during the interviews it was
not necessary to select more participants to be interviewed (e.g., Glesne, 2011).
40
Data Sources
The sources of data were interviews with various groups of participants: current
students, former students, teachers, the principal, observations of classes in progress, and
the review of documents. In order to enhance validity, triangulation method was used to
incorporate multiple data sources (Glesne, 2011).
Data Collection
I made use of qualitative interviews, which are usually a conversation and present
a two-way interaction in which a participant may ask the researcher questions (Yin,
2011). To facilitate the interviews, I used open-ended and predetermined semi structured
interview guide (see Appendixes B to F). However, discussions were allowed to proceed
naturally whereby participants were encouraged to air their views or experiences
(Merriam, 2009). Probing questions were asked, requesting more clarification, more
explanation, description, and more evaluation depending on how the participant
responded (Glesne, 2011).
The interview location was at the school or another place, depending on the
participants’ desire, and ensured the participants were comfortable, relaxed, and free to
express themselves. The participants determined where they wanted the interview to take
place. Interviews took place in different locations, including classrooms, the principal’s
office and the computer lab. During the interviews the doors were always closed to
ensure there were no interruptions from outside and to maintain privacy and
confidentiality.
41
I made use of two audio recorders to ensure that there was no loss of data just in
case one recorder failed. I also used a notebook to take notes as the interviews proceeded.
The time allocated for each interview lasted about 45 minutes. The procedure of data
collection was as follows:
1. reviewed school documents
2. interviews with both current and former students
3. observations of instructors and students in classrooms
4. interviews with the instructors
5. interviews with the principal
All the instructors who I interviewed I had also observed as they taught. My
observation was the basis for some of the questions I asked to the instructors. For the
direct observations, I sat in various classrooms and observed lessons in progress focused
on teacher’s methodologies, materials being used, and student participation and response.
During the interviews, I observed the participants’ reaction to interview questions, mood
and any notable emotional response (see Appendix F).
Prior to the interview with the principal, I gave him open-ended questions to
acquaint himself with the questions and be able to prepare. I took notes as the interviews
proceeded (Merriam, 2009). During the interviews, I made notes in my research log of
the interview process, participants’ behavior and my perceptions of the interviews.
Throughout the data collection period, I endeavored to be analytical. This was important
because it led to relationships, new questions, meanings, explanations as well as
preparation of concentrated data analysis at the end of the study (Glesne, 2011).
42
I reviewed the existing school records. The records included: attendance, exam
performances, disciplinary issues and all the other important documents. To protect
students’ privacy, I examined students’ overall performances in standardized exams,
Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) without looking at particular
individual student’s scores. I also examined the curriculum, enrollment, and attrition, as
well as high school exit examination results (KCSE) for former students to assess the
school’s level of performance. These records were used to provide background and
context to supplement the perceptions of the participants. For the purpose of
triangulation, there were five sources of data. The sources were: interviews with current
students, former students, teachers, the principal, and from observations.
Data from Interviews
The nine current students selected were interviewed by me on one-on-one basis
using semi-structured guiding questions. Other follow up questions were asked,
depending on the answers given (see Appendix B). Six women and three men were
interviewed. I interviewed the three men who were former students using semi structured
guide questions (see Appendix C). I collected data from interviews with the five teachers
and the principal (see appendix D and E). The collection of data was followed by the
triangulation method.
Data Collected from Observations
Observational data included classroom observations of instructors as well as
students (see Appendix F). I observed four instructors teaching Mathematics in Form 4,
English in Form 4, Science in Form 3 and Geography in Form 1. I took note of
43
participants in their crowded classrooms, observed their casual dressing (unlike wearing
uniforms, which is the dress code of primary and secondary school students in Kenya). I
also noted how the students responded to the teacher’s questions, how they participated in
processes, and how they talked and interacted with one another and the instructors as
well. (Glesne, 2011). All my observations and interviews involved only day students. I
did not observe the evening classes because of safety concerns. The nine participants
were all Form 4 students who were in their final year. There were six women and three
men. After the collection of data, I analyzed the data and then triangulated the results.
The Role of the Researcher
As a researcher, my primary role was data collection and analysis. I was the major
“research instrument” (Yin, 2011). I was the interviewer and interpreter of the collected
data, and observer of participants’ behavior during the interviews. Furthermore, I also
analyzed and interpreted data from the participants, in order to answer the research
question (Hancock, 2011).
As a researcher, I have worked in the field of education in different capacities. I
trained and worked as an elementary (primary) school teacher, served as a Board of
Governors’ Chairman of a secondary school in eastern Kenya for 5 years and was a
lecturer and dean of students at Pan Africa Christian University. Over the years, I have
witnessed students drop out of school and go out to the world without any training, and
therefore, not ready to be absorbed in the job market.
Characteristics of a competent, qualitative researcher include a questioning stance
whereby one is able to question to understand what is happening, being tolerant for
44
ambiguity, being a careful observer, being a good listener, able to ask open-ended
questions followed up by probes and requests for more details; thinking inductively, thus
being able to move specific raw data to abstract categories and to concepts, and being
comfortable with writing. Writing is crucial because a qualitative study report requires
writing words, unlike quantitative study which requires numbers (Merriam, 2009). As the
researcher for this study, I am qualified and have the necessary competencies to gather
and analyze data.
As a qualitative researcher, I was aware that being a research instrument, I would
bring to this research a particular lens which is not bias free. I am a product of my
cultural background which, as a Kenyan, I had very little regard for school dropouts. My
personality as a person who believes in high academic performance, and as an elderly
male from middle class social status, have had an impact on my worldview (Yin, 2011).
Being cognizant with the fact that my own biases could influence how perspectives are
portrayed, to safeguard any bias, I invited the participants to member check and review
the major themes from interviews and observations. I also continually monitored my own
subjective perspective by reflecting on field notes and keeping a journal (Lodico et al.,
2006).
Data Analysis
In qualitative research, data analysis involves a simultaneous analyzing process
whereby the collected data can also be analyzed (Creswell, 2012). Merriam (2009)
observed that collecting and analyzing data simultaneously helps the researcher from
being unfocused, repetitious and overwhelmed by a large volume of materials needing to
45
be processed. I conducted analysis of data simultaneously with data collection. To
enhance the validity in my data analysis, I heeded Yin’s (2011) precautions of double
checking the accuracy of my data, made my analysis thorough and complete, and
continually monitored my own biases which could be imposed by my own values when
analyzing my data.
Making use of a word processing program, I compiled and sorted data as I
formulated some codes I developed to categorize the data. I avoided the imposition of a
priori coding in my data, but rather, went through my transcripts line by line so as to
immerse myself into the data and find out what concepts would emerge from the data.
The codes were as follows: CTS1to CTS9 for current students, FTS1 to FTS3 for former
students, T1 to T5 for instructors (teachers) and P for principal. The codes were based on
factors which contributed to students’ dropping out and returning to school. A successful
reassembling of arrays led to main themes emerging from the data. I progressed from
themes to interpreting, and concluding (Glense, 2011; Yin, 2011). During data analysis
minority views emerged from the data. The procedure of dealing with such discrepancies
was in three steps: first was constant comparisons in watching for similarities and
dissimilarities in the data; second was uncovering the negative instances which
challenged the robustness of my codes or labels; and the third procedure was to engage
constantly in rival thinking, that is searching for alternative explanation for my initial
observation (Yin, 2011). I concluded the study with analytic generalization, by providing
a substantive proposition that adult learners in Kenya return to school to better their
future economic earnings.
46
In order to enhance study quality and trustworthiness, I provided adequate and
detailed data to the reader to be able to assess the credibility and validity of the study.
Using the triangulation method, using multiple data sources, clarification of researcher’s
bias, doing member checking to clarify interpretation and contribute to additional
perspectives, and writing rich-thick descriptions, all contributed to trustworthiness
(Glesne, 2011).
Ethical Treatment of Participation
The researcher followed the Walden University’s procedure for research approval
prior to identifying and contacting the participants for this qualitative case study. This
included submitting the proposal to Walden University’s Institute Review Board (IRB)
which granted approval (#05-29-14-0261210). Trust between the researcher and the
participants cannot be compromised. The researcher is duty bound to protect his/her
participants, promote integrity and guard against any misconduct and impropriety, which
could reflect negatively on either the researcher or his/her institution (Creswell, 2009).
As a researcher, I made sure that I maintained confidentiality by not using the real
names of the participants and treating all the participants with respect and understanding.
Risks to participants was minimal and participation was voluntary. Participants chose to
participate or not, and there was no likelihood of participants being at any risk by
answering questions.
A detailed description of the research was provided to prospective participants
outlining the study and the rights of the participants. They were informed that
participation in the research was voluntary and that should one wish to withdraw from the
47
study was at liberty to do so at any time. Confidentiality was observed. No names of
participants were used, but pseudonyms were used instead of participants’ real names.
Consent forms, which had the actual names of the participants, were locked in a separate
file from the transcripts. Codes were used in reporting the results of the study (Creswell,
2009; Glesne, 2011; Merriam, 2009; Yin, 2011). The findings were shared with the
participants for the purpose of clarity and member checking.
Findings
Introduction
BALC was founded in 1979 as adult literacy center. Many such centers were
operating all over the country then. This was the Kenyan government’s effort to provide
literacy classes to the then mainly illiterate population. A few years after its inception, the
center added a primary school section. Primary school dropouts started joining and a few
years later, the center had students sit for the Certificate of Primary Education (CPE)
exam. Later, the secondary school section was also added and the first KCSE at the
center was done in 2002. The physical environment and the administration of the center
is described below.
The Adult Learning Center
The center operates within a public primary school, which has more than 600
pupils. The center has two types of students, those pursuing primary education and those
in secondary school. So, to put it in another way, the compound has three different types
of students: (a) primary school children whose ages range from 7 to 14 years, (b) adult
primary school learners, and (c) adult secondary school learners. Once one gets into the
48
school compound the first thing to notice is that there are so many people, and a lot of
noise, because of the children in the primary school. The children dress in school uniform
while the adult learners dress casually.
The buildings in the compound are old, with stone walls, tile roofs, and concrete
floors. The paint is peeling off, and some ceilings are hanging dangerously. Each
classroom has electricity. The windows have wire mesh; and most of the windows have
broken glasses. The classrooms have wooden doors with a lock. Since this study is
limited to the Adult learning center, the facilities used by the public primary school will
not be discussed here. However, suffice it to say that the administration of the public
primary school is different from the center’s administration. As a matter of fact, the
center is like a tenant to the primary school, although it was not established whether the
center pays any rent to the primary school. The primary school enjoys funding from the
government while the center’s assistance from the government is minimal.
The center operates from six classrooms, and a small staff room which is not
more than 150 square feet. The staffroom has only three desks and a few chairs. Within
the staffroom there is a small cubicle which is used as the finance office. Next to the
staffroom is the principal’s office. The principal’s office, which is about 100 square feet,
doubles as the storage facility where chalk and blackboard dusters are kept. All the
buildings in the compound used by both public primary school and the adult learning
Center are one story, spread all over the compound, leaving a small area which is used for
outdoor sports. The six classrooms used by the center are not all in one building. There
are two classrooms which are in the same building with the staffroom and the principal’s
49
office used for secondary school classes by Forms 1 and 2 combined, then Form 3 on
their own, and one classroom on the opposite building used by Form 4 students. Further
away from the secondary school classrooms are three classrooms used by the primary
school adult learners. Some of the classrooms for the public primary school are in the
same buildings with the Adult learning center classrooms.
There were 508 adult learners in the center. The number included both day and
evening students. The adult learners who had day jobs went for evening classes while
others who were available during the day went for day classes. The curriculum for both
day and evening classes was the same. Also both day and evening classes were taught by
the same instructors. The primary school section had 167 and the secondary section had
341 adult learners.
Table 3
Students Enrolled in the Adult Center in May, 2014
Gender Primary Secondary
Women 108 206
Men 59 135
Sub-Total 167 341
Total 508
The students were diversified in terms of tribes, religions, rural and city origins,
as well as age. The ages ranged between 18 and 55 years. There were some students from
50
the neighboring Southern Sudan too. It was not possible to establish how many students
attend day classes and how many attend evening classes.
The Instructors
The secondary school section had six full time instructors, including the principal.
There was only one female instructor. The number of part time teachers was not
established. The age distribution of the instructors ranged between 35 to 60 years.
Considering the number of students, which is 508, the student/teacher ratio is 85 to 1.
Most secondary schools have a ratio of 40 to 1.
The Administration
The center does not have its own property but operates from a public primary
school compound. The administration of the center is under the responsibility of the
principal. The principal reports to the Department of Continuing Education and Adult
learning in the Ministry of Education. The center has two sections, primary school
section and the secondary school section. The primary school section is headed by a
headmaster, and the principal heads the secondary school section, as well as being the
overall head of the center. The only other person in the administration is an accounts
clerk who collects and banks school fees paid by the students. Students pay school fees of
Kenya Shillings 4,000.00 (USD 45) per term. Since the center operates in a public school,
the primary school has its own administrative structure. The public primary school is not
a part of this study, therefore its administration will not be discussed here.
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Results of the Survey
Adult Learners Perspective of Going Back to School
Adult education in Kenya has some negative connotations. Whenever the phrase
adult education is mentioned, people think of the Kiswahili word ngumbaru which means
illiterate. The root of the word comes from adult literacy program which has been
running since 1970s. This program was designed for adults who did not know how to
read and write learn reading and numeracy skills. The two terms adult education and
adult literacy are different, but many people in Kenya equate them as synonymous. Adult
education is defined as the whole body of organized processes, regardless of the content,
level and method; whether formal or informal; whether prolonged or replace learning in
schools, colleges or universities; whereby persons regarded as adults by the societies in
which they belong, develop their skills, enrich their knowledge and improve their
technical or vocational qualifications (Nesbit & Welton, 2014, p.1).
Adults returning to school must brave the stigma of being termed as ngumbaru
(illiterate). During my interviews with the students, I learned that some of them would
not like their peers to know that they are back in school. One student told me how he
avoids his work mates and sneaks into the school compound without being seen. I was
informed of a drama, which ensued some time ago when some journalists from a local
newspaper came to the school expecting to interview students and teachers and write a
story about the center. Most of the students ran away from the school compound because
they did not want to give any interview or have their pictures taken. My visit to the
school was treated with a lot of suspicion. Both the students and the teachers wanted to
52
know how I was going to treat the data I was collecting. I assured them that my data
collection was for the sole purpose of academic research and that I was not connected
with any media organization; so their stories would not be published in the local
newspapers. I also assured them I was not going to mention the name of the center, and
that I was not going to use their real names but pseudonyms. It was after these assurances
that they relaxed and allowed me interview them.
The students in this learning center came from different backgrounds. According
to instructor T2, who has been in the center since its inception in 1979, observed that
students basically come from all the regions of Kenya. The center has both primary
school and high school. The primary school students take KCPE. There was no set
criteria for determining which class one went other than individual students telling the
instructors the last class they attended before dropping out of school, and either joining
that class or the class ahead. Students for both primary and secondary came from
different religious backgrounds such as Christians and Muslims, and their ages were
between 18 and 55 years. The number of women students was double the number of male
students.
Instructor T2 said that some of the students register for exams and they are not
seen again until the exam days; while other registered as students, but were not able to
continue due to either work or family responsibilities. Not all the students in the center
were dropouts. Instructor T2 said that since the secondary school section was introduced
8 years ago, many students who failed their exam from regular secondary schools went to
repeat their KCSE. The participants in the study were school dropouts who were current
53
students in the center or former students who had gone through the high school program
at the center. In the discussion below, students talked about the reasons they dropped out
of school, their reasons for returning to school, and their academic aspirations.
Poverty the Major Cause of Dropping Out of School
The students gave various reasons as to why they dropped out of school. One
male student gave his reason for dropping out of school as follows: “I am an orphan. My
parents died when I was 8 years old, so I was brought up by my grandmother who could
not afford to take me to Secondary School. I left school at Form 3 to look for a job”
(CST6). The students said that the average school fees per term in a day secondary school
(not boarding), was Ksh.3,500 which was USD 40, and may be, after adding school
uniform and books, could amount to a total of Ksh.10,000 (USD120) per term. The
average pay for a non-skilled worker is about Ksh.7, 000 (USD 80) per month which was
not enough to provide food and housing for the family and send children to school.
Other Causes of Dropping Out of School
Besides poverty, there were other reasons which made some participants dropout
of school. A female student gave pregnancy as the reason for dropping out of school. She
explained:
I dropped out of school at second term in Form 3. The reason for dropping out of
school was, I accidentally got pregnant. I would have loved to give birth and then
return to school but my dad kicked me out of our home. I went to live with my
grandmother till I gave birth. (CST8)
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A male student left school after he impregnated a girl when he was at the 7th
grade. He said the police wanted to arrest him, so he had to escape from the village and
consequently dropped out of school. He later learned the police could not have arrested
him, but because he was young and naïve, he believed that he was going to be arrested
(CST3). Culturally, when a boy makes a girl pregnant, it is expected that the boy marries
the girl. Sometimes the parents of the girl could put pressure to force the boy to marry the
pregnant girl; however, the Kenyan laws are not strong on child support; so, many girls
take the responsibility of bringing up their children without any financial support from
the fathers of the children. Other reasons for dropping out of school were: making poor
grades, getting into discipline problems at school, getting sick and being hospitalized for
a long time, and lack of interest with school.
Return to School for Better Economic Future
Most of the participants were either not employed or had jobs that were not
paying them enough money to support themselves or their families. The participants
believed that a good education could help them get better jobs, and consequently, better
their economic earnings in future. All the current students and the former students had
reasons why they decided to return to school. Most of the students mentioned getting a
better job, as the main reason for returning to school.
One student said he was not fitting in the company of his peers because of lack of
education. One female student who was a successful business woman talked of how she
embarrassed her university trained husband whenever she interacted with their family
friends because she is not able to speak English. The reason for her returning to school
55
therefore was to be able to learn both written and spoken English so as to fit in her
husband’s social life, and to learn math so as to balance her books in her business. Other
students who were involved in small businesses also cited book-keeping and financial
management as the reasons which made them return to school. A male student returned to
school because he wanted to be a better parent. He said that there is a difference in
parenting between an educated parent and an uneducated parent. The student was of the
opinion that education would make him a better parent.
Some of the students left their rural homes and went to the city for the sole
purpose of going to school. A female student, CST1, left her children and her husband in
the country (rural area) 250 miles away to come to this particular school. She said there
were no such schools in her area and she agreed with her husband that her going back to
school was important for the family. She further explained how she had to leave her
husband with the children miles away for some time so as to fulfil her educational dream.
She talked of how before she joined the center she was doing jobs which were low paying
and not satisfying. She said those jobs would subject her to a life of poverty and that she
and her husband would not be able to send their children to good schools. She returned to
school to get the qualification which would enable her to go to college, and eventually,
get a better job in the future (CST1). A 35 year old male who was a former student went
back to school, 20 years after graduating from primary schools. His motivation to return
to school was for him to be able to gain academic credentials to enable him to train for a
profession and get a job to provide for his family (FST1).
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The participants expressed their views on why school dropouts should return to
school. They made comments such as “Education is everything, and without education
today, one is nobody” (CST 9). Similar views were expressed by another student who
said, “It is important to return to school because out there, one cannot get a job without
education” (CST1). A participant asserted, “Education is the key to good life, so if school
dropouts want good life they should return to school and work very hard so as to succeed
and get good academic qualification” (CST 3).
The former students who participated in the interview explained how their lives
had changed after returning to school. One student who enumerated his benefits said
learning English was very useful to him. He underscored that his English grammar was
very bad and poor knowledge of English made him find it difficult to understand school
textbooks which are written in English, and that led to poor grades. After joining the
center, he became confident in expressing himself in English. The student further said
learning mathematics was useful to him because he was able to manage his business. The
participant said the greatest achievement was that he passed his KCSE exam and gained
admission in a college (FST2). Participant FST 1 said his life changed in many ways, his
level of understanding changed; he had learned how to motivate himself to work hard in
school; and that he was able to chart his future after gaining the required qualification to
go to college.
Students’ Aspirations for Achieving High School Diploma
School dropouts returned to school with some goals in mind. Both the current
students and the former students had very clear goals they would like to achieve as far as
57
their education was concerned. All the student participants came back to school expecting
to complete their high school, take their KCSE exam, and graduate with a high school
diploma. Some of the students joined the center at the primary school level, then moved
on to secondary school section after taking the KCPE exam. The former students
achieved this goal and were moving ahead with their academic aspirations. The students
explained they were aware that, for one to qualify for university education, the minimum
KCSE grade should be C+. Those who get below C+ qualify for middle level colleges,
such as nursing colleges, primary teacher training colleges and polytechnics.
The current students had their minds made up about what they would like to
study. Some of the students were already operating their own businesses, so such students
wanted to study business management or marketing. Other participants wanted to be
professionals.
One student expressed the desire to become a chemical engineer. The student said
the reason for his desire to be an engineer was because of his love for chemistry, and
therefore, engineering was a good profession for him. A lady who used to work with
women groups in rural areas expressed the desire to study community development. She
was concerned that there was a lot of poverty in her area and would therefore work with
her local communities to alleviate poverty.
Another lady participant wanted to be a nurse like her own mother. One male
participant expressed the desire of being a professor. The participant expected to graduate
with his high school diploma, then study for his undergraduate degree, and finally
proceed to graduate school to obtain a doctorate degree. When this participant was asked
58
which discipline he would like to study, he did not have an answer. A female participant
expressed the desire of being a teacher of young children. She would influence children
positively, help them learn and become responsible members of the society. Another
male student said he would like to be a psychologist and was prepared to study up to
doctorate level.
The three former students were also very clear on the direction they were going as
far as their educational goals were concerned. One participant (FST1), after completing
high school at the center, enrolled for a certificate in procurement and completed the
course successfully after one and a half years. At the time of the interview, the former
student was taking a diploma (Associate Degree) course in procurement. The third
participant (FST3) got a B- in his KCSE exam. The participant had qualified for
University admission. With this qualification, he was able to choose from many areas of
study offered in the Kenyan colleges and Universities. The participant was planning to
apply to Kenya Medical Training College (KMTC), where he would study pharmacy.
Lastly, the second participant (FST2) had graduated from the center six years ago. Since
graduation from high school, he had made huge academic progress. After graduating
from the center the participant registered for a BA course in theology, which he
completed, he attended a graduate school where he pursued a Master’s degree and
completed it. He wanted to pursue a Doctoral Degree in Theology and Leadership.
Although the reasons which caused the participants to drop out of school may
have been varied, their perspective of returning to school could be summed up as: to
make a difference in their economic and social lives. According to the data, most students
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dropped out of school due to economic reasons. They could not afford to pay school fees
and therefore had to dropout. Asked why they returned to school, the students cited
economic reasons as the main motivation for returning to school. And lastly most
students had high academic aspirations. They all looked forward to completing their high
school education which culminated by taking an exit exam in Form 4 (Twelfth grade),
and gaining access to higher education or employment.
Preparation for Exit Exam (KSCE)
Students at the center take an exit examination at the end of their senior year
(Form 4). The examination known as Kenya secondary certificate of education (KSCE) is
the same examination taken by regular high school students in Kenya. The high school
program was designed to take four years. However, adult learners at the center did not
have adequate time for study because they took two or three years to complete high
school. Classes were also combined, i.e. Form One students being combined with Form
Two students. Taking two years to complete the high school program instead of four
years and combining classes that form ones and form twos shared the same classroom
were some the biggest challenges of adapting high school curriculum for the adult
learners. The principal noted that although the students faced a lot of odds as they
prepared for their final exam, some of them performed exemplarily well and managed to
go to college.
There were factors which influenced the success of the students who had
performed well. Despite the odds the students at the center go through, some of them
have excelled in their academic pursuit. Some students have passed the KCSE and
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proceeded to colleges for higher education and vocational training. Explaining what
influenced the success of some of their students, the principal underscored that some
return to school so as to get the qualification for higher education admission while others
want promotions at their employment or just desire social acceptance. He further said the
following:
What has influenced their success is the fact that some of them come here with
reasons. It is these reasons that influence them to work hard and pass. Many a
times, the reason is to get promoted in their places of work. For those who are not
working, they want to become relevant in the society, they have realized that
education and knowledge is important and they feel odd out there uneducated.
They therefore strive very hard to make it, and they finally make it. (Principal,
June 4, 2014)
Some of the students interviewed did not fit the “dropout” description because
after taking their high school exam from regular secondary schools, they decide to join
the center so as to repeat the exam. An observation of the school records revealed that
there were 230 students who had registered with the center to take KCSE in 2014.
According to the principal some of the students were repeaters from regular Kenyan
secondary schools. One current student observed the following:
I did my Form 4 and got a D+. I knew I couldn’t go straight to University, after
consultation with my dad and mom I applied for a college in Nairobi at Kenya
Institute of Professional Studies, for a Diploma in cabin crew. I tried to use the
Diploma Certificate to join a University but I couldn’t manage. My mother
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advised me to go back to school. And since I knew it was the only way to get me
to the University, I decided to come back to this center. (CST5, May 30, 2014)
The students help each other as they prepare for the exams. One student was
happy with the help he was getting from his peers. He reiterated that he got help from his
fellow students and although he used to have problems with English and Mathematics he
was doing far much better than he did in his former school, and was confident that he was
going to perform well in his final exam which took place in October 2014 (CT5, May 30,
2014). The students’ preparation for KCSE exam was inhibited by lack of learning
materials and inadequate facilities. The center did not have a science lab of its own so
they relied on other schools. Students from the center visit other schools where they
could make use of the lab facilities for their science subjects.
The former students who were interviewed were happy with the way the center
prepared them for the exit exam. One former student talked of how he managed to get
good results which enabled him to go to college where he graduated with a bachelor’s
degree and later went ahead and got a master’s degree (FST1)May 29, 2014). Another
student noted that he managed to get a B- grade which gave him access to college where
he is currently studying pharmacy (FST2, May 29, 2014). Lastly the third former student
praised the center for preparing him for KCSE exam. Since he left school he has attended
two colleges. He was pursuing a three year diploma in procurement (FST3, May 29,
2014)
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Adapting the Secondary School Curriculum by Adult Education Instructors
Adult education instructors at BALC have the challenge of adapting to the regular
secondary school curriculum. In the absence of any high school equivalent examination
for adult learners, the only curriculum that is available for adult learners to complete high
school is the regular high school curriculum which is used in all secondary schools in
Kenya. The curriculum in Kenyan primary schools, secondary schools and mid-level
colleges is standardized. Kenya Institute of Education is charged with the responsibility
of developing curriculum for Kenyan schools. The standardization of the curriculum
leads to standardized exams during the end of the final year in primary (KCPE). After
KCPE students join high school and start preparing for the final exam during their senior
year in high school (Form 4).
The Kenya secondary education curriculum has a total of 21 subjects. Schools
choose subjects to offer depending on their availability of teachers and resources.
Students in Forms One and Two are categorized as level A. Students at this level are
expected to take 12 subjects selected as follows in Table 4.
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Table 4
Subjects for Forms 1 and 2
Ten core subjects Select one subject Two optional
Subjects
1. Mathematics 1. Christian Religious 1. Business
Studies
2. English Education 2. Agriculture
3. Kiswahili 2. Islamic Religious 3. Arabic
4.
Biology Education 4. Home Science
5. Chemistry 3. Hindu Religious 5. French
6. Physics Education 6. Germany
7. Geography 7. Music
8. History and Government 8. Art and
Design
9. Physical Education 9. Computer
Studies
10. Religious Education
Source: Kenya School Certificate Examination Subjects Choices, by Kenya National
Examination Council, (n.d).
Students in Forms Three and Four are categorized as level B. At this level
students take a minimum of seven subjects and a maximum of nine subjects selected as
indicated in the Table 5.
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Table 5
Subjects for Forms 3 and 4
Core subjects (compulsory Selected at least Select between one
subjects) two subjects and three subjects
English Biology Other subjects to be selected
Kiswahili Physics from any of those a student
Mathematics Chemistry studied in Forms One and
Two
Source: Kenya School Certificate Examination Subjects Choices, by Kenya National
Examination Council, (n.d).
ource: http//www.elimu.net/Secondary/Kenya/KSCE_studentchoice
Secondary school students in Kenya take 4 years to complete their high school
diploma. During this period, the students are expected to take one final standardized
exam known as Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education. The Kenyan secondary school
assessment approach is cumulative whereby students are tested what they have learned in
4 years at the end of the fourth year. This approach is different from formative
assessment whereby students are assessed continuously.
Adult students in the secondary school section take the same subjects taken by
students in the regular high school. However, due to lack of teachers and resources, the
center was limited in the number of subjects it could offer to the students. Unlike regular
high schools, the students at the center did not take specialized subjects such as art and
design, music, computer studies and agriculture. Also the center did not offer specialized
languages such as Germany, French and Arabic. Table 6 illustrates the subjects offered
for high school students at the adult learning center.
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Table 6
Subjects offered at BALC
Core subject Select two subjects Select between one and
three subjects
English Biology Geography
Kiswahili Physics History and Government
Mathematics Chemistry CRE
Business
Secondary school adult learners in Kenya are required to take the subjects
outlined above, which are meant for young students whose ages range from 13 to 21
years. Adults returning to school are faced with the challenge of adapting to the
secondary school curriculum.
The instructors had a challenge of adapting a curriculum meant for regular high
school youths to suit the adult learners. Both the instructors and the principal knew that
most of the adult learners were not suited for the curriculum. According to the principal,
the students faced many challenges as they tried to adapt to regular high school
curriculum. The principal highlighted the challenges of the current curriculum as follows:
There’s need for review of the current curriculum. The adult learners have other
responsibilities and therefore have to distribute their time to all these
responsibilities: job, education, family, and still have to study and pass exams.
They can’t manage to be in class all through. They have other things to attend to.
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There needs to be a curriculum that suits these student learners. (Principal, June 4,
2014)
Apart from the responsibilities which adult learners had, three out of five teachers
who were interviewed cited the ability of understanding as a challenge. There was a
general consensus that most of the adult learners were struggling with their studies and
that they were slow learners. One of the teachers, comparing the regular high school
students with adult learners asserted that, “the adult learners’ understanding pace is
slower than that of young regular high school students” (T2, June 3, 2014).
The students knew that the curriculum was not meant for them but for the regular
high school students. Asked whether there should be any change in curriculum, they did
not know whether change was possible, many admitted that they had not thought of any
change of the curriculum. The only problem they voiced was the lack of facilities and
hence not being able to have the privileges and the luxury enjoyed by students in regular
secondary schools. All the nine current students and the three former students
interviewed mentioned lack of facilities as one of the major challenges they faced at the
learning center.
One of the teachers mentioned that there was a proposal with the Education
Secretary (cabinet minister for education in Kenya) in which adult education would have
a different curriculum and hence a different high school exit exam. The teacher explained
that the proposal is a policy matter, which had to be passed as legislation by the two
parliaments and ratified by the president. However, the teacher expressed his doubts that
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such legislation would come any time soon due the political rivalry between the major
political parties in the country.
Alternative Curriculum and Assessment
According to the principal, the curriculum was a direct transplant of the Kenyan
regular secondary school curriculum. All the five instructors and the principal were of the
opinion that KCSE exam and hence the curriculum were not suitable for adult learners.
Adult learners have a lot of responsibilities such as their jobs family, and probably their
social life. School is not the only thing they do. They go to school either tired or with a
lot of responsibilities competing for their time. One of the teacher’s commented:
It is not very good for them because of the kind of study, the time-frame is putting
a lot of constraint on them, putting a lot of pressure, there are people who are very
busy, and they come here after attending to several different tasks. Some of them
come in the evening when they are from work, they are also family people, have
got so many things to attend to. So I feel there should be a different exam for are
these people. (T1, May 28, 2014)
The same teacher proposed a different approach to assessment of adult learners.
He challenged the current cumulative assessment method, where students are tested at the
end of their secondary school program. The teacher supported formative form of
assessment which in essence is continuous assessment throughout the high school period.
The students at the center did not prepare for the exam for 4 years. Most students
completed their high school within 2 or 3 years. The curriculum was meant to take four
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years. Therefore, as a result of shortening the period the adult learners spend in school,
the students did not cover the syllabus. T3 noted:
If you compare the responsibilities they have, the curriculum is not fit for them. It
is designed in a way that someone must study for four years to complete the
KCSE syllabus. Our students complete the program between two to three years.
The adult learners want to study something they will practice after their course,
but the curriculum requires them to select at least eight subjects for their exam in
order to attain Kenyan high school diploma. (T3 May 28, 2014)
To sum up, all the teachers believed that the current curriculum was not suitable
for adult learners, therefore it should be changed. The principal proposed a change of
policy by the ministry of education where adult learners could have a different exam
instead of syndicating regular high school curriculum and examination. According to the
interviews with the students, teachers and the principal, curriculum adaptation for the
adult learners has been a challenge and will remain so as long as adult learners in Kenya
continue using a curriculum that is designed for regular high school students. A change of
the curriculum for adult learners is a major national decision which could require a
legislation action by the Kenyan parliament. However, until that change is made,
providers of adult learning in Kenya will have to do the best they can to assist adult
learners adapt to the current regular high school curriculum.
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Methods Instructors Apply to Teach Adult Learner
During the classroom observations, the instructors used mainly lecture method,
which portrayed teacher-centered approach as opposed to self-directed learning. The
teaching materials used were minimal and the instructors had a dominant attitude.
Instructors’ Conflict between Pedagogy and Andragogy Approaches
During the interviews some of the instructors revealed that they were not trained.
Those who were trained underwent training for teaching either primary school or
secondary school students, but none of them was trained to teach adults. Among the six
instructors in the day program, some were trained and others came from different
professions. One of the instructors who taught chemistry and physics was an engineer.
Although the instructors may have had good academic background, it was evident that
none of them had training on teaching adults. The instructors who participated in this
research were in agreement that adult learners are different from young high school
students. They noted the difference in learning styles between adult learners and teen age
students in regular high schools. The teachers concluded that, since the learning styles of
adults is different from teenagers, teachers must try to understand adult learners. During
the data collection, the teachers were interviewed and also observed as they taught.
Students too gave their views about the role of their teachers.
Dominant Attitude by Instructors and Students’ Passivity
The instructors were cognizant of the fact that adult students are different from
young teenage students, and that they should be treated differently. While teachers in
primary and secondary schools have the mandate of molding the character of young
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students, the same could not be said for adult instructors. It is harder for one to discipline
an adult student than disciplining a younger student in primary school or high school.
During the observation I noticed that some students who had not completed their
assignment were told to leave the classroom, the students stayed outside for the whole
lesson. When I asked the teacher concerned he said that he was punishing the students for
not completing their assignment. One student commenting about a teacher said that the
teacher was harsh to students, but they like his teaching. The teachers did not encourage
or motivate the students. Words such as “well-done, good, excellent or fantastic” were
never used even once as an encouragement and motivation to students. I however, noted
that some of the students who seemed weak were ignored and were not encouraged to
answer questions. A student who advocated for students’ independence and self-directed
learning, was of the feeling that the students were not involved in decision making and
was of the opinion that students should be consulted whenever decisions which affect
them were being made. The teachers were also aware that the students were different
from regular high school students. Teacher (T2), commenting on why students return to
school, said that the students know what they want in life and that is why they chose to
return to school out of their own volition without coercion from anybody, unlike when
they were young, their parents could force them to go to school.
The principal was concerned that the teachers had only regular teacher training
which usually focuses either on teaching in primary school or secondary school teacher
training. The principal underscored that there is no college in the country which trains
adult education instructors. He further said, the establishment of such a college is very
71
necessary. The University of Nairobi, department of education tries to make some efforts
towards sensitizing adult education instructors in the country to realize that adult learners
are different from young primary school or secondary school students, but there was to be
no curriculum available, which was used to train adult education instructors. During the
interviews with the teachers they felt that all the colleges training teachers in the country
should have adult learning section where teachers could specialize in teaching adult
learners
Shortfalls in Methodology
It was noted that the instructors had several teaching problems which included;
shortfalls in methodology, getting on without teaching materials and teachers’ attitude
towards the students. It was observed that teachers treated the adult learners just as they
would treat teenage students. Out of the five teachers who were observed as they taught,
three of them used lecture method. One of the teachers who taught Form 3 English used
the conversational lecture method in his teaching approach. The topic was on report
writing. Students listened and made notes. The teacher wrote some notes on the black
board for students to copy. The students were not fully engaged, some of them looked
bored, and others talked to one another as the teacher taught.
Another classroom observation was done in Form One, where the geography
teacher was teaching on “The great lakes of East Africa”. The teacher used lecture
method in his content delivery and from time to time asked questions which students
answered with a lot of interest. There were no other learning activities apart from the
questions asked by the teacher. Some students took notes as the teacher taught, others just
72
listened but never took notes. Most students looked interested with the lesson, ready to
learn and the teacher was engaging. The teacher’s questions were clear and students
responded appropriately. There was no assignment given to the students. In all the classes
observed, the missing items were: teaching aids, textbooks for students and any form of
technology such as power point presentation and use of internet. The teachers mainly
relied on chalk board as the only visual item in their teaching.
Later during the interviews, the teachers revealed that they use other methods
other than lecture method; they further reiterated that methodology is determined by the
topic of the subject as well as the availability of teaching materials. According to the
instructors, they also use other methods such as discussion, group assignments and class
presentations. The teachers were aware that varying teaching methods kept students
motivated and yielded better results than using one method which led to students’
boredom.
The students too, voiced their views on the methods used by teachers. Most
students mentioned lecture method are the most used approach by the instructors. A
student observed that she got bored and sleepy, while another said, it was like listening to
a preacher, so after sometime he switched off and stops listening. The students said they
preferred group discussions. Unlike the claim of the instructors that they vary their
methodology, the students revealed that most instructors use lecture method all the time,
with exception of two teachers who use discussion method but less frequently. The
students did not seem to know any other method which could be used in teaching.
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Former student (FST1), did not care what methods the instructors used.
According to him, the reason he returned to school was to learn, so he was ready to learn
regardless of the method. Some current students too, said they were happy to be back to
school and were grateful that the instructors were doing their best, considering the tough
working environment where lack of resources and facilities were common.
Instructors Resilience and Lack of Teaching Materials
During my classroom observations, it was notable that learning materials were
lacking. There were no charts on the walls and, no materials were used by the teachers.
Teachers lacked teacher’s guides, and students had no textbooks. All the current and
former students pointed out that the school had no lab and therefore most science courses
were taught without any lab demonstrations and experiments. The principal, pointed out
that teaching materials were one of the greatest setbacks the center was facing in terms of
service delivery to its clients. In this case the service is education and of course the
clients are the adult students. The center had limited resources and therefore not able to
buy text books and other teaching materials such as maps, charts science equipment etc.
In a geography class, the teacher taught about the great lakes of East Africa but had no
map to show where these lakes are situated. In a chemistry class, the teacher had no
chemicals in the classroom, but he kept on promising the students that the class would
make a trip to another school so as to use the laboratory.
The teachers had study guides for most of the subjects. One teacher said that the
school could not afford buying the teachers’ guides so individual teachers had to spend
their own money to buy books to use in teaching their classes. There were some students
74
with textbooks but majority of the students did not have them. Textbooks though few
were the only visible teaching/leaning material in the classroom during observations.
The students voiced their concern of lack of facilities too. Considering that they
knew how equipped regulars secondary schools were, they knew the center lacked
essential learning materials. Apart from both textbooks and a library, the students raised
concern that although they were back in school, they were not getting quality education
the way they did during their school days before they dropped out of school. They could
remember the schools where they went were equipped with teaching materials and how
teachers used them to help students learn. A student mentioned that in his former school,
teachers used computer projected presentations presentation in class, which according to
the student was an effective way of making use of technology in learning.
A student who had knowledge of computers said that although Internet was
expensive in Kenya, there were Internet cafes which are affordable so it is possible for
teachers to use the Internet in a limited manner to give assignments to students. During
my discussion with the principal, I was informed that the school had a fully equipped
computer lab which was a donation from a charitable organization. I went to the room
and found that there were 15 computers, but there was no Internet connection. I asked
whether the students use the computer lab and I was informed that they do. However; the
time I was there, I never saw any student going to the computer lab. I also learned that
some of the teachers were not computer literate, and most of them, including the principal
did not have an active email address.
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A former student said that, despite the scarcity of learning materials and
resources, the center was playing an important role of giving school dropouts an
opportunity of returning to school. The same sentiments were echoed by one of the
teachers who noted that, lack of teaching materials did not deter the center from fulfilling
its mission, which was giving a second chance to high school dropouts.
Conclusion
The adult learners’ perspectives on going to school are conflicting. On one hand,
there exists a notion in Kenya that adult education is for illiterate people (ngumbaru), and
therefore adults returning to school have to deal with the stigma of being viewed by the
society as illiterate. On the other hand, adult learners saw their returning to school as
getting a second chance to complete their high school diploma. The former students who
participated confirmed that it is possible to return to school and graduate from high
school. Both the current students and the former students confirmed that they returned to
school so as to improve their future earnings or due to economic reasons. Others wanted
to be more competent in running their businesses. One participant however, went to
school so as to be a better parent. The aspirations of most students was to complete high
school and proceed for higher education or train for various professions. The former
students who participated in the study were pursuing further studies in colleges and
universities.
The curriculum puts the adult education instructors in a difficult situation, because
it was not designed for adult learners but for regular high school students. The adult
education instructors have to adapt the syndicated curriculum and make it work for their
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adult learners. Despite the hardships the center goes through, there are stories of students
who have gone through the program and completed successfully. One of the former
students have been able to go to college and are pursuing their careers after completing
high school successfully. Being that adult education instructors had to adapt a curriculum
which was designed for regular high school students, it was evident that an alternative
curriculum for adult learners was needed.
Lecture method was over used by the instructors and therefore undermined
learning because students were not fully engaged in the learning process. However, some
students who were highly motivated said that they went back to school to learn and
therefore did not care which methods the instructors used. There was an acute lack of
teaching/ learning materials which may have impacted teaching negatively, but the
instructors had no choice but to get along without teaching materials. Lastly, the
instructors were dominant while most of the students were passive. Adult learners are
self-directing and therefore any effort by the instructors to either ignore or demean adult
independence would interfere with learning. Instructors should differentiate pedagogy
which is approach of teaching children and andragogy, the approach used for adult
learners.
An overview of qualitative research design was provided in this section. I
discussed the rationale of the research, research design, as well as the role of the
researcher. Other areas which were discussed include how the setting sample was
identified and discussion on ethical treatment of human subjects. I also discussed how
77
data was collected and managed. Data analysis, theme and study report concludes the
study.
Data Interpretation
The adult learning center operations were in a public primary school. This meant
that the center was not able to initiate any physical developments such, as building
classrooms and laboratories. The primary school had many children and the compound
was small. The congestion of many people in a small place meant that there was a lot of
noise in the compound from children in their classrooms and also when playing in the
field. Adult learners at the center would have preferred a quieter environment but they
had to keep up with the noise.
The physical facilities needed repair, and the six classrooms being shared by both
primary and secondary sections at the center were few compared the number of classes of
adult learners. Since the center has both secondary and primary sections, there should be
at least 12 classrooms, or a classroom for each grade. The classrooms are congested and
there were very few desks for students. The center had a very limited office space and
would have functioned better with more room for the principal, head of the primary
section, secretary’s office and a staff room.
The adult learners were 508 in number, 167 from primary school section and 341
from the secondary school section. This showed that there were more adults pursuing
secondary education than those who were returning to primary school. It was not
established why there were more adult students returning to school in secondary than in
Primary. However; it is reported that Nairobi county, had 12,634 private candidates who
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took KCPE exam in 2012 (SoftKenya, n.d). In terms of gender, both in the primary and
secondary sections, there were more women returning to school than men. This was
confirmed by Kenyan report on adult education which underscored that there were more
women registering for adult education classes than men in 2012(Soft Kenya, n.d). The
ages of the adult learners ranged from 18 to 55 years. This wide range of students’ ages
showed that when people decided to return to school, age did not matter.
The negative connotation of adult education being equated with illiteracy makes
adults shy away from returning to school. The adult learners returning to school knew
why they returned to school and therefore they did not mind being ridiculed by their
peers. The difference between adult education and adult literacy needs to be explained to
potential adult learners and Kenyan public as a whole. Adult literacy is a program for
people who are not able to read or write (as explained elsewhere in this study) while adult
education is for adults who are over 18 years of age pursuing an educational program
whether formal or non-formal in nature.
Although there were different reasons which were cited as the cause of dropping
out of school, the major reason for most participants was economical. They either came
from poor families or they were orphans and therefore could not afford school fees. Only
one participant said that she dropped out of school due to getting pregnant. A male
participant too dropped out of school after making a girl pregnant and ran away when he
was threatened with arrest by the police. Interestingly, none of the ladies cited being
forced to early marriage. Some communities in Kenya marry off their girls when they are
79
as young as 12 years. The Kenyan government does not support such marriages and yet
they take place unabated.
The reasons for returning to school were as varied as they were interesting. Some
participants acknowledged that they felt intimidated when they were in the company of
their educated peers and therefore for them fit in their social groups, they chose to return
to school. Kenya has two national languages, Swahili and English. Swahili is used when
people are speaking to one another, but rarely used in business documents. English is
regarded as the official language. The participants explained that being able to speak and
read English is very crucial in Kenya because all official documents are written in
English. One cannot transact business without using English. The participants who gave
learning English as the reason for returning to school said that the language would help
them to live their lives. They added that the society expects them to know English. So
being unable to speak and write in English is embarrassing to them.
Another reason for returning to school was to learn mathematics so as to be able
to balance books in their businesses, as well as to learn how to manage their money. And
lastly, some students’ reason for returning to school was to gain qualification that would
make them be accepted in colleges and train for professions which would lead to better
paying jobs.
Majority of the participants cited gaining qualification to be accepted in college
where they could train for a profession as the reasons which made them return to school.
On their academic aspirations, the participants expressed their educational goals as
follows:
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• Complete high school and get a diploma.
• Qualify for admission to college and study professions which included;
nursing, teaching, engineering, community development, courses in medical,
marketing, procurement etc.
One student had high aspirations of studying up to doctoral level and becoming a
professor. The students saw lack of high school diploma as their greatest hindrance to
higher education. They therefore returned to school ready to take the challenge and move
on in their academic pursuit. Some participants did not have high aspirations while others
believed that they were in a position to advance both academically and professionally. It
is believed that more academic achievements and professional training would lead to
better employment, more pay and better quality of life.
The high school curriculum in Kenya has 21 subjects. The system of evaluation is
cumulative rather than formative. This means that although students are introduced to
many different subjects in Forms One and Two, they are expected to drop some of the
subjects and remain with at least seven subjects and not more than nine subjects. Students
are then examined at the end of their high school period which is normally 4 years and
the final grade determined by that one exam.(Kenya National Examination Council, n.d).
Adult learners do not have a separate exam from high school students. Adult
learners were subjected to studying high school curriculum which is specifically tailored
for the regular high school students. It was difficult for adult learners to adjust to the
curriculum because of being busy with other responsibilities such as jobs and family. One
teacher attributed the difficulty of curriculum adaption to slower understanding pace of
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adult learners compared to younger high school students who have better brains. There is
an ongoing debate among educators on whether younger minds learn better than older
minds. Without getting drawn to this debate, suffice it to say that most people train for
professions when they are already adults. It was noted that the curriculum was not
suitable for adult learners and that there should be a review to delink adult learners’ high
school curriculum from the regular national high school curriculum.
The preparation for the exit exam (KCSE) was a big challenge for the
participants. The students were however, motivated to succeed and become relevant in
the society. In their preparations for the exit exam, they were hampered by some physical
challenges at the center, such as lack of science laboratory, unfriendly academic
environment for adults such as using small desks meant for young children, being in
over-crowded in the classrooms, poorly trained teachers and lack of learning materials.
Despite the challenges the students were determined to soldier on and prepare for the
exam. The school records and former students who were interviewed revealed that the
center was succeeding in preparing students for the exit exam. However; the center would
be more effective in preparing students for exams if some of the problems highlighted
above were addressed. Wanjohi, a Kenyan researcher outlines four effective methods of
teaching adults as follows:
• Lectures and assignments- these are lectures which encourage adult learners to
participate.
• Demonstrations- Demonstrations are good in providing mental pictures.
Teachers could use experiments to demonstrate ideas.
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• Group work. Group work increases social integration. It is argued that social
integration has significant positive effect on retention.
• Dialogue. Dialogue is a two way approach. Adult learners are able to interpret
and incorporate facts into their own experiences. Wanjohi (n.d).
There was a suggestion for an alternative curriculum and a different form of
assessing high school adult learners. While this is a noble idea, it is a policy issue that has
to be decided by the Kenyan government. The Kenyan government has been involved in
providing quality educational and training policies since 1963 (Ochieng, 2013). This
study is not dealing with policy issues so the matter is laid to rest until the time when a
study on educational policy for adult learners could be undertaken.
The secondary section had six full-time instructors. This was a very small number
considering the subjects the students are required to study. Both the academic and
professional training was important if instructors were to achieve their goals of effective
teaching. It was noted that not all the instructors were trained teachers. It was also noted
that those who were trained received training to either teach primary school or secondary
school students, but not to teach adult learners. To put it in another way, the instructors
were trained in pedagogy approach but not andragogy approach.
According to classroom observations, and interviews with teachers, students and
the principal, the teachers had some shortfalls in methodology. Indoshi, Bett, and Odera
(2009) in their research on classroom interaction in Kenya, asserted that teachers should
be encouraged to use andragogical methods instead of lecture methods which did not
encourage students’ participation. Most of them used lecture method and wrote on the
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blackboard. It was noted that most students were less responsive to this method because it
called for minimal students’ involvement. Although the instructors said that they use
other methods as well, it was not evident that they do because both the observations and
the interviews negated such claim. It is worth noting however, that some students felt that
considering the harsh and poor environment the instructors were subjected to, the
instructors were doing a good job.
During the classroom observations, it was notable that teachers lacked teaching
materials. Indoshi et al. (2009) noted that Kenyan teachers who participated in a
classroom interactive study cited lack of resources as the reason for not having teaching
materials. The findings of Indoshi et al. (2009) are in agreement with this study. I noted
that there were no charts on the walls in any of the classrooms, no maps during
geography lessons, no apparatus or chemicals in chemistry classes, and no labs during
science lessons. Textbooks for students were few. There was no use of modern
technology. Although there are computers in the center, only few teachers know how to
use a computer and therefore use of technology in education is still a mirage for the
center. The reason given by the principal was that, the center had limited resources and
therefore could not afford to buy learning/teaching materials.
Although the instructors were cognizant of the fact that, adult learners are
different from young children, most of the times the treatment of the students by the
instructors did not reflect that knowledge. The instructors may not be aware that adults
are self-directing and therefore they seek their own independence. A clear distinction
between pedagogy and andragogy was necessary. According to Knowles (1980) in
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pedagogy approach, students are dependent on the teacher while in andragogy approach
students are independent and self-directing.
The question on empowerment, whether the adult learners were being empowered
through this program begs for answers. Although it could be argued that the school
dropouts are being empowered through the program, evidence from the interviews and
observations prove otherwise. The adult learners study a curriculum which was designed
for regular high school students, the instructors use pedagogical approach rather than
andragogical approach which is suitable for adult learners and teaching methods are less
interactive. According to Freire (2000) a program cannot be liberating or empowering if
it is designed by the oppressor on behalf of the oppressed. For a program to be liberating
the oppressed must participate in the formulation and designing the program. In this
program, the adult learners are involved in preparing for an exam which they have no
control over, they use a rigid curriculum which does not give room for creativity. The
teachers are involved in what is called depository or banking concept of education. In
depository or banking concept of education, the teacher becomes the depositor and the
students are the depositories. Knowledge is passed down from the teacher to the students
(Freire, 2000). The banking concept of education is contrasted with problem-posing
education. This concept posits how people develop their own ability to critically
comprehend their own existence in the environment they find themselves in. Their view
for the world is both a process and transformational reality rather than a static reality
(Freire, 2000). Taking into account the odds adult learners in Kenya have to overcome to
go back to school, the unprecedented curriculum and standardized exam which is not
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tailored for them, as well as being taught by instructors who are not trained to teach adult
learners, it would be fitting to conclude that the Kenyan adult education system is
oppressive. However, the students themselves are the initiators of their own
empowerment because they are resilient enough to overcome all the odds and acquire a
high school diploma.
Conclusion
Sections 1and 2 included a detailed description of a single case study used in this
research. There were 18 participants’ interviews conducted during the data collection.
The participants included nine current students, three former students, five teachers and
the principal. I transcribed the interviews for they were verbatim. A thematic analysis of
the transcripts identified three themes: (a) getting a second chance by returning to school,
(b) adult education instructors adapting to regular high school curriculum and (c) The
instructors’ conflict between pedagogy and andragogy approaches.
Section 3 is a professional development project created from one of the themes
generated from this study. The project includes; professional development theory, adult
education instructors training on educational theory, methods for teaching adults,
pedagogy and andragogy approaches compared, a workshop plan, implementation and
evaluation.
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Section 3: The Project
Introduction
The purpose of the project is to equip instructors at BALC with relevant
professional training necessary for teaching adult learners. Students at BALC returned to
school due to many reasons but the major reason was to improve their economic earnings
in the future by completing high school and getting better jobs. For the students to
succeed, they have to pass their KCSE exam. For the students to pass the exam, the
instructors have a big role to play. The role of the instructors is to ensure that students
succeed in their exams. The results of the study revealed that some of the instructors at
the center have had teacher training while others were not trained. The results also
showed that all the instructors have not had training on adult learning theories and
practice.
Although high school dropouts return to school expecting to take and pass their
final high school exam, not all of them succeed. Some manage to get good grades and
proceed to college and vocational training while majority of the learners do not get good
grades, which could allow them to proceed for further training. Many challenges that
inhibit students’ success were identified. However, instructors’ training was identified as
one of the major challenges facing the students at the adult learning center. To ensure that
the instructors prepared the students adequately, there is need for professional
development program for the adult instructors.
Based on the observations and students’ interviews the teachers were using
teacher-centered approaches and students were passive learners. The project will help
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instructors to use student-centered approaches whereby students will be actively engaged
in learning. For students to be successful, they will need to learn some self-management
approaches. The observations and interviews also revealed that students had many
responsibilities that included work, family and school. Students need to know how to
manage their time so as to be able to attend to their work and family responsibilities and
at the same time be able to do their school work. Instructors will need to be trained on
time management so as to be able to train their students on the same.
During my observations and interviews with instructors and students, I noted that
some students get discouraged when their class performance does not measure according
to either their expectations or instructors’ expectations and therefore some of them may
consider dropping out of the learning center. To ensure that students do not get
discouraged and dropout out of the learning center, a motivational training session will be
offered to the instructors who will use the motivational skills to assist students to remain
motivated and focused.
Lastly during the observations, I noted that classrooms were too small for the
number of students and therefore the physical environment posed some challenge to
learning. To reduce the overcrowding problem the students could be divided into small
groups whereby they could be given group assignments and report back to the class. A
physical and social environment self-management approach will be included in the
training.
In the project, I focused on professional development for the instructors of BALC.
Since the case study revealed the major setback to students’ success was poor training of
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teachers, the areas of training will include; professional development theory, pedagogy
and andragogy approaches, self- management approaches, learning strategies to improve
students’ performance in exams, a workshop plan, implementation, and evaluation.
Description and Goals
Professional development of adult instructors is not mentioned in any Kenyan
literature review. The lack of professional development in Kenyan literature may mean
that little is being done on professional development for adult instructors. Given the fact
that adult education is either overlooked by Kenyan policy makers or it has not occurred
to them that school dropouts need to be integrated into the Kenyan workforce by
providing educational advancement opportunities, the project will endeavor to equip
adult education instructors with the appropriate skills for teaching adult learners.
Addressing the Identified Problem
Although there are many students who are enrolled at BALC Center, the
instructors continue to use lecture method in the lessons delivery, without varying their
teaching approach. The students who return to school would like to take final high school
KCSE standardized exam and qualify for admission in colleges and vocational training.
The ultimate goal of the adult learners is to be able to improve their economic status by
getting better jobs. For them to get better jobs they have to go to college and for them to
go to college they need to perform well in the KCSE standardized exam. Most of the
students enrolled for KCSE standardized exam do not attain aggregate C+, which is the
minimum grade for entry to Kenyan universities.
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The results of this case study revealed that instructors were not diversifying their
lesson delivery methods, and they used pedagogical approaches in teaching adult learners
instead of using andragogical /self-directed approaches. This deficiency in teaching
showed that the instructors needed training on teaching adult learners so that students’
exam performance could be improved. The project study involved triangulating data
obtained from current students, former students, instructors, the principal and
observations of school records. Based on best practices found the literature and the results
of the case study completed, a professional development project for instructors was
developed. The professional development strategies directly relate to instructors getting
trained so as to be able to use adult learning approaches in their teaching as well as
preparing students for successful performance in exams.
Goals and Objectives
Goals are defined as general statements on what will be attained in the future,
they are gaps between the current situation and what is intended to be accomplished
(Sinnema & Robinson, 2012). The general goal of the project is to empower the adult
learners at BALC through effective use of learning/teaching strategies. Objectives are
more specific statements communicating the intended instructional outcome (Veronin &
Party, 2002). Project objectives were established for the in-service-training workshop for
instructors. Upon the completion of the workshop, the instructors will be able to:
• demonstrate their understanding of pedagogical and andragogical approaches
of instruction by explaining their differences
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• demonstrate their understanding of adult self-directed learning models by
giving examples on how to help students participate in self-directed learning
• be able to teach successful learning strategies
• be able to use variety of methods and materials in one lesson as a result of
participating in microteaching.
Rationale
High school dropouts in Kenya have limited chances of returning to school and
continuing with education. However, adult learning centers are coming up mainly in the
cities and that school dropouts are willing to go back to school. Because of the dropout
problem, I developed a case study to explore how one adult learning center, BALC
located in a central urban city in Kenya, is meeting the needs, goals and aspirations of its
adult learners. Based on the results of the study, many factors were identified as
contributing to lack of empowerment of students. I chose to address one of the major
themes identified, which is professional development for instructors of the center.
Professional development will make instructor more competent in teaching and prepare
students adequately for final exams.
Review of the Literature
I focused on search of literature addressing three main issues that would address
the project: pedagogical and andragogical approaches, self-directed learning, and
effective learning strategies. I used Education Resource Information Center, Pysch
articles, EBSCO Host, and ProQuest Digital Dissertation. Key words used in search of
professional development for instructors included: adult learners, pedagogy, andragogy,
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self-directed learning, effective learning methods/techniques, motivation, and
microteaching. Key words used in search of professional development included:
professional development, teacher training, and instructors training. Key words used in
program planning were: program planning, program proposal, program planning
proposal, and program implementation.
Professional Development
There are many definitions of professional development. Some of the definitions
emphasize the role of increasing knowledge for teachers while others refer to the
improvement of students learning outcomes (Villegas-Reimers, 2003). However,
McDonald (2009) gave a more comprehensive definition of professional development as,
systematic processes that cause change in teachers’ attitudes, beliefs and practices, to
influence the learning outcomes of the students.
Darling-Hammond and Richardson (2009) were of the opinion that for
professional development to be meaningful it has to be centered on students learning, as
well as providing a long period of teachers’ collaboration in both their institutions and
classrooms. According to Burke (2013) professional developers should have dialogue
simulation, personalized inquiry, instructing, direct-assessment, and reflection of new
instruction strategies in their professional development programs. This program proposal
is based on (a) the findings of the case study, and (b) best practices from literature that
demonstrated effective strategies of adult learning.
Professional development takes place in two forms: it is either for preservice
teachers undergoing training in colleges, or for in-service teachers who would improve
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their skills in teaching. Theories of learning as well as strategic knowledge needed to put
theory into practice should characterize professional development (Burke, 2013).
According to Darling-Hammond and McLaughlin (2011), besides theoretical knowledge,
teachers must learn and experience successful learner-centered and learning-centered
teaching practices. Essentially teachers must play dual roles of learning and teaching.
Darling-Hammond and McLaughlin (2011) further observed that the effectiveness of
teachers’ professional development depends on the involvement of both the teachers as
learners and as teachers as well.
Instructors whose concern is to improve the academic performance and success of
their students have to develop effective learning and teaching skills. McDonald (2009)
summarized the purpose of professional development program, was to promote changed
thinking of teachers who would in turn, lead to improved students’ performance. The
elements which would lead to successful performance of adult learners will include; clear
distinction between pedagogy and andragogy (Merriam, 2001), self-directed learning
(Edmondson, Boyer, & Artis, 2012), effective learning strategies and use of
microteaching as a tool to develop instructors (Fisher & Burrell, 2011).
Using Microteaching in Professional Development
Micro-teaching is defined as an organized practice teaching in a supportive Low-
risk environment. Participants prepare a 10 minutes lesson plan, teach it at a workshop to
small group of peers and receive detailed feedback on their teaching strategy and
performance (Fisher & Burrell, 2011). There are benefits that teachers, whether pre-
service or in-service, could derive from microteaching. Donnelly and Fitzmaurice (2011)
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asserted that microteaching has been successful in leading teacher to self-awareness and
increased confidence in their teaching style and practice. Microteaching assists teachers
to become more reflective about their work as they get feedback from their peers and as
they think about their own teaching (Donnelly & Fitzmaurice, 2011). Summarizing the
purpose of microteaching Fisher and Burrell (2011) noted that microteaching strengthens
teacher’s core values for teaching as well as being able to understand what is expected of
them, it also gives teachers an opportunity to know their strengths and weaknesses.
Microteaching as a Teacher Training Tool
Microteaching has been used in the United States and other countries as a tool of
assisting teachers with improving their skills (Donnelly & Fitzmaurice, 2011).
Microteaching is an effective tool for developing teacher candidates to teach at all levels
of education ranging from elementary schools to universities. This technique was
developed in the 1960s (Fisher & Burrell, 2011).
Microteaching study carried out in Turkey, according to Kilic (2011) investigated
the effect of learner-centered microteaching (LCMT) model in developing pre-service
teachers’ teaching competencies. Kilic (2011) further explained the method used in the
study was pretest-posttest design without a control group. The pretest determined
teachers’ behavior before the treatment and posttest was used to determine teachers’
behavior after the treatment (Kilic, 2010). The study showed that “LCMT model had a
progress in teacher candidates’ teaching behaviors on subject area, planning, teaching
process, classroom management, communication and evaluation” (Kilic, 2010, p.89).
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There is evidence in literature that there was a study carried in Ireland to test the
effectiveness of microteaching. According to Donnelly and Fitzmaurice (2011), the
purpose of the study was to find out how effective microteaching program was and how it
could be improved. According to Donnelly and Fitzmaurice (2011), the results of the study
revealed that microteaching gave the participants a chance to look at their practice afresh.
The result showed that it is possible for participants to develop anxiety and negative
experiences because microteaching could be stressful. However, after several attempts
participants gain confidence (Donnelly & Fitzmaurice, 2011).
Microteaching skills include asking probing questions, giving illustration with
examples, stimulus variations, classroom management, reinforcement and use of
blackboard (Donnell & Fitzmaurice, 2011). Although microteaching can be approached
in different ways, the following procedure (see Figure 1) is commonly used:
Plan Teach Feed-back Re-plan Re-teach Re-feedback
Figure 1. Microteaching procedure. Student teachers repeat these steps until attainment
of skills and mastery is realized (Fisher & Burrell, 2011).
Pedagogy and Andragogy Approaches
There is evidence in literature which shows that there are differences between
pedagogy and andragogy (Taylor, 2009). Knowles (1980) developed six key assumptions
which are summarized as self-concept, experience, readiness to learn, orientation to learn,
motivation to learn and the need to know.
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Self-Directed learning (SDL)
The concept of self-directed learning was introduced by Malcolm Knowles in his
assumptions of andragogy (Merriam, 2001). The andragogical concept of education
posits that the adult learner is self-directed, internally motivated and experienced (Deyo,
Huynh, Rochester, Sturpe, & Kiser, 2011). Self-directed learning is a process whereby
individuals with or without assistance take charge of their learning needs, set their own
goals, identify both human and material resources for their learning, appropriately choose
and implement learning strategies( Deyo et al., 2011). Edmondson (2012) defined self-
directed learning as a process where the learners takes charge in planning, implementing
and evaluating their learning needs and outcomes whether or not they get help from
other people.
There are several goals and models of self-directed learning. Brockett and
Heimtra (1991) advanced their view that self-directed learning should develop the
learners’ capacity to be self- directed. The second goal of self-directed learning is
transformational learning, this goal calls for critical reflection by the learner (Brookfield,
1986). The third goal is directed emancipatory and social action (Brookfield, 1993).
Along with goals, self-directed learning presents different models. Denis, 1992,
model in Merriam (2001) talked of SDL mapping where learning strategies, phases of
learning process, the learner, and the environmental context has to be considered.
Merriam and Caffarella (1999) advocated for instructional model that fostered students’
control of learning.
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Although self-directed learning has been widely implemented among different
learners regardless of their academic and age levels, self-directed learning is mainly used
in postsecondary and adult education programs (Du, 2012). Adult learners who have
higher levels of skills and expertise are more likely to benefit from using self-directed
learning, this is because they are able to exhaust instructor-led learning resources and
result to self-manage, their own learning to advance their knowledge, skills and abilities
(Boyer, Edmondson, Artis, & Fleming, 2013).
Teaching Models in Relation to Self-Directed Learning
A study carried in a Kenyan private university revealed that the methods of
instruction were teacher-directed (Kungu, Iraki, & Machtmes, 2010). Giving an overview
of self-directed learning in Africa, Kungu et al. (2010) noted that although in adult
education, self-directed learning readiness of college students’ assessment is prevalent in
literature, there is no evidence that such studies exist in African colleges and universities.
Kungu et al. (2010) underscored that although the Kenyan University he and others
researched had one of its values as having a life- long learning culture, which in essence
refers to self-directed learning, the methods used by the instructors negated that concept.
Self-directed learning is learner-centered. Golightly (2010) described learner-
centered approach as, “the development of learning programs and materials that favor the
learners, recognizing and building on their accumulated knowledge and experiences, and
responding to their individual and collective needs” (p.233). Learner-centered approach
engages students in activities that require discovering, reasoning, data gathering,
application problem-solving and communication ideas (Golightly, 2010).
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Comparing the teaching methods of dependent learners and self-directed learners,
Merriam (2001) noted; that whilst dependent learner would require both introductory
materials and would gain from lecture, drill as well as immediate correction, self-directed
learners are able to engage in guided discussions and discovery learning. Self-directed
learners are therefore able to use more interactive methods in their learning than
dependent learners.
Self-directed learning readiness should be seen as an important component of
adult learning at BALC. Fisher, King and Tague (2001) described self-directed leaning
readiness as the degree, the abilities, and the personality traits possessed by an individual
which are essential for self-development learning. Guglielmino, (1989) observed that
adult learners could be assisted to develop capacity in self-directed learning readiness.
Self –Management Approaches
Adult instructors would need to be trained on strategies they would apply to
prepare students for standardized exams. A successful student has to be self-regulated/
self-directed or self-managed. Dembo and Seli (2008) outlined the components of a
successful self-directed student as; motivation, use of time, physical environment, social
environment, learning techniques and monitoring performance. Below are brief
descriptions of these components.
Motivation
Students get discouraged when studying boring subjects and sometimes give up or
ignore doing their work which would lead to poor performance in their assessment.
Students whose grades keep on falling tend to encounter frustration and continued failure
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would lead to believe that he/she cannot perform certain tasks or do well academically
(Hock, Deshler, & Schumaker, 2011). For such students to keep on studying they would
need to be motivated. Motivation is defined as internal processes or state which energizes
a person to perform a task and accomplish a goal (Mayer, 2011).
Research has revealed different forms of interventions in enhancing academic
motivation (Hock, Deshler, & Schumaker, 2011). Positive reinforcement (Bandura,
1986), rewarding students’ improvement (Ames & Archer, 1988), using cognitive and
metacognitive learning instruction strategies to orchestrate success (Borkowski, Day,
Saenz, Dietmeyer, Estrada, & Groteluschen, 1992) and making learning more interesting
(Anderson, Shirey, Wilson, & Fielding, 1987). According to Hock et al. (2011), academic
underachievement could be caused by disinterest, or lack of effort due to having
unrelated personal goals.
Students face many distracters which interfere with their studying. Successful
students learn how to manage distraction by being able to self-motivate (Dembo & Seli,
2008). According to Dembo and Seli (2008), students can manage their motivation by
consistently setting goals, learning self-management technique of verbalization or self-
talk where by one can tell oneself, “wonderful, I did it” or “I am proud of myself”.
Another self-motivational technique is planning rewards or punishments for success or
failure of academic task (Dembo & Seli, 2008).
Time Management:
The efficient utilization of resources to achieve the expected goal, performing
tasks or conducting activities within a given time frame, from the beginning to the end is
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a simple definition of time management (Cemaloglu & Filiz, 2010). The skill of time
management deals with the ability to establish how much time is needed for tasks to be
completed as well as determine the amount of time to allot for specific tasks and
available total amount of time (Howel, Sulak, Bagby, Diaz, & Thompson, 2013). Noting
that people cannot save, lend or even change it, Cemaloglu and Filiz (2010) asserted that
time should be used efficiently.
There are three components of time management; time planning, time consumers
and time attitudes (Cemaloglu & Filiz, 2010). Planning the use of time and effectively
implementing it must be considered as a basic skill of everybody who would want to be
efficient in every phase and activity of life (Cemaloglu & Filiz, 2010). Referring to
planning by students, (Cemaloglu & Filiz, 2010) asserted that students should decide on
their purposes and methods have short-term, mid-term and long term planning. Time
consumers are obstacles that inhibit the use of time efficiently. Cemaloglu & Filiz (2010)
noted the problems which consume time for students who fail to plan their time as;
instability, irresponsibility, uncertainty of purpose, failure to determine priorities
procrastination and distraction. Time attitudes are the behaviors whether positive or
negative that affect allocation of time to planned activities (Cemaloglu & Filiz, 2010).
Studies have revealed that establishing time routine of the day for studying could lead to
effective time management as well as planning to start long-term assignments early in the
semester (Swart, Lombard, & Jager, 2010).
Research has found that there is correlation between time management and good
academic performance, whereby students with good time management skills are more
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successful than students who only work to beat deadlines (Dembo & Seli, 2008).
Teaching time management skills to students could help them avoid time wastage and
utilize their time for study and performing academic tasks.
Physical and Social Environment
Research has shown that physical and social environment can affect learning
(Liang, Hsu, Huang, &Chen, 2012). Physical environment includes; ambient,
environmental load, personal space, territories and crowding (Gifford, 2007). Examples
of physical environment are; materials, furnishings and interior designs, environmental
factors such as lighting, sound and infrastructure design (Liang et al., 2012). According
to Liang et al. (2012), examples of social environment include: mutual support between
teachers and classmates, communicating with classmates, accepting to be challenged in
class, competitive learning climate, respecting diversity and freedom of expression in
class.
The literature review shows limited research on the impact of physical space on
learning (Brooks, 2011). However, studies by Brooks (2011) showed that physical space
for students can improve students’ learning. Research has found that high academic
achievers make use of environmental restructuring. Environmental restructuring refers to
locations and places to study where it is quiet and with minimal distraction (Dembo &
Seli, 2008)
Students learn when they are in structured but flexible groups. Studies on how
social environment influences learning have shown that, small groups lead to a higher
level of students’ active engagement in their learning process (Katz, 2013). Self-
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management of social environment refers to students studying in groups or seeking help
from instructor.
Learning Techniques
During the study, I looked at the techniques which could be used by the students
without the assistance of modern technology. I avoided technology assisted techniques
because both the students and the teachers at BALC do not use the Internet. They
however use mobile phones, but telephone is expensive therefore mobile phones
technology is yet to be used in learning for Africa, and for Kenya in particular. Dunlosky,
Rowson, Marsh, Nathan and Willingham (2013) acknowledged that cognitive and
educational psychologists have developed learning techniques that could help students
perform well in assessments and fulfill their educational goals. Studies have revealed
many learning techniques which could assist students’ success (Dunlosky et al., 2013).
Practice-self-testing and spacing effects are some of the techniques teachers could train
students to ensure success (Dunlosky et al., 2013).
Practice Testing Technique
Educational communities have continued to view high-stake summative
assessment negatively, however; students can use testing to improve their learning
(Rawson and Dunlosky, 2012). Practice testing is distinguished from any testing activity
by the teacher; it is also differentiated from any low-stake or no-stake summative
assessment administered by the instructor. It encompasses practice testing that student
engages on his own (Dunlosky et al., 2013). Studies on practice testing have revealed that
testing can retard forgetting (Johnson & Mayer, 2009), that combination of practice test
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and restudy is more effective than using restudy or testing alone (Rawson & Dunlosky,
2012). Studies have also showed that practice tests with short answers which retrieve
information from long-term memory could lead to high performance (McDaniel,
Anderson, Derbish, & Morrisette, 2007). Vaughn and Rawson (2011) noted that practice
tests which are spread out in longer period intervals could lead to greater levels of
performance. To sum up, although summative testing continues be viewed negatively,
there is enough evidence from literature to support the narrative that, practice testing
leads to high level performance in learning.
Spacing Effect Technique
Spacing effect also known as distributed learning refers to memory being
enhanced when learning events are spaced over a period of time (Vlach & Sandhofer,
2012). Studies have compared spaced effect with massed learning. Vlach and Sandhofer
(2012) described massed learning as schedules of events presented to participants
immediately in a successive manner then participants are tested whether they can recall.
On the other hand, spaced learning schedules are presented to participants over a time
then the participants are tested. Cepeda, Pashler, Wixted, and Rohrer (2006) noted that
spaced learning learners have long term performance than massed learning.
There has been discussion in literature on the length of delays in spacing effect. In
other words, how long should the spacing gap be? Literature does not reveal any specific
period. However; Carpenter, Cepeda, Rohrer, Kang, and Pashler (2012) recommended
information to be reviewed after several weeks or months have passed since the initial
learning. Spacing gaps may not always produce superior memory retention, one could
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forget after waiting for too long, thus resulting to diminishing returns to increasing the
spacing gap (Cepeda et al., 2006).
Some of the strategies that instructors could capitalize in order to take advantage
of spacing would be, students receiving spaced re-exposure to previously learned
information, by instructors giving cumulative exams and quizzes (Carpenter et al., 2012).
Another strategy would be for instructors to give assignments and homework covering
information learned several weeks ago (Carpenter et al., 2012).
Spacing effect strategy has several challenges which instructors have to
overcome. Carpenter et al. (2012) observed that students are less enthusiastic about
cumulative exams, they however; noted that regular review would help the students retain
information in memory. The second challenge is the feeling that students forget much
information previously acquired (Dillon, 2008). Responding to this challenge, Berger,
Hall, and Bahrick (2008) noted, students recall faster when they are re-exposing to
information they had learned earlier than information being learned for the first time.
Finally another challenge instructors may face is the use of textbooks for they are written
in a non-distributed manner (Carpenter et al., 2012). To overcome this challenge
Carpenter et al. (2012) suggested supplementing information learned with previous
learned information or making use of interleaved set of varied examples. Although
spacing effect has some challenges, the literature reviewed showed that students can
maximize their performance as they actively engage in this strategy.
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Implementation
Potential Resources and Existing Supports
The cooperation of the center’s administration is vital. Although I have
highlighted on the importance of the project, the decision to host the workshop will
depend on the principal and his management team. Since I may not be the one to
implement the project, the principal will need to identify a skilled facilitator who has the
training on adult learning and capable of handling the workshop adequately. Physical
materials will be needed for the workshop. They include multimedia presentation screen
a projector, pens pencils notebooks and reading materials. The project materials such as
workshop guidelines, facilitator’s notes, and workshop timetable are provided in
Appendix A.
I developed relationship with various stakeholders of the center. The principal
was extremely supportive. He showed the concern that the teachers are not trained to
teach adults and therefore was of the opinion that a workshop for the instructors would be
highly welcome. The teachers also were very willing to learn on how they can improve
their teaching.
The department of adult learning in the Ministry of Education is very open to new
ideas which would be helpful in the development of adult learning. I will therefore
present the plan to the director of adult learning department who gives direct oversight
of the center. I will make it clear that this is an introduction and that other workshops will
follow.
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Potential Barriers
The barriers to professional development for adult instructors are numerous. The
center operates under very tight budget and therefore the administration may want to
know whether there is a plan to fund their projects. In Kenya workshops are held in
hotels where participants book in and board for a number of days. Instructors may resist
the training because it will be held at the learning center instead of a luxurious hotel.
Some instructors who have taught at the center for long time may feel that they do not
need the training.
On how to assist the center with its other projects, I will explain to the
administration that professional development will improve the performance of their
students in KCSE exam and that good grades will attract more students. On the issue of
workshop venue, the workshop could be held at the center during school holidays. The
principal could provide lunch to the participants and financial reimbursement for the
instructors since they will spend their holiday time to attend the workshop.
Proposal for Implementation and Timetable
The workshop could be offered during school vacations in August, 2015 or any
other time the principal decides to hold it. The workshop will run for three consecutive
days, each day having three sessions. Following the workshop, the instructors will
commit to implementing the principles and teaching concepts learned during the
workshop immediately the center opens in September, 2015.
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Roles and Responsibilities of Student and Others
In the professional development of instructors’ workshop, I assumed
responsibility for conducting research, designing the professional development workshop
and workshop materials, and in collaboration with the participating institution, I could
conduct the workshop. The center’s administration is responsible for scheduling the
workshop and instructors’ participation.
Other roles and responsibilities include the facilitator of the workshop and
participants’ evaluation. The facilitator will be appointed by the principal of the
collaborating institution. The facilitator will be responsible for running the workshop.
The instructors (participants) at the training workshop will be responsible for evaluating
the effectiveness of the workshop.
Project Evaluation
The evaluation for this project will be learning outcomes based evaluation.
Learning outcomes describes what the students should be capable of doing after the
lesson, in other words, it describes the knowledge, the comprehension and the skills the
student should have learned from the course (Klefstad, Maribu, Horgen & Hjeltnes,
2010).
After the end of the workshop, the participants will complete a paper based
written assessment. The first questions are multiple choices (strongly disagree, disagree,
agree and strongly agree) and the final six, are short answer (see Appendix A). Since the
instructors would express themselves better when they are assured of confidentiality, the
107
instructors will remain anonymous, thus they will not write their names on the evaluation
form.
The results of the evaluation will be given to the principal of the center who
would use it for future training workshops and follow up with the instructors. The
principal will have ongoing checks, and hold meetings with the instructors to discuss
students’ outcomes in class performance and exams, teaching approaches and students’
responses.
Implications Including Social Change
Local Community
This study was designed to address a local problem, namely, the empowerment of
high school dropouts in Kenya in general and at BALC in particular. The problem was
that there is no clear return to school program for school dropouts, and that the
uncoordinated introduction of adult learning centers is beginning to show a slight light
at the end of the tunnel. In section 2, I introduced BALC, an institution which is using
high school summative standardized exam to assist students in gaining a high school
diploma. The results of the case study supported the expected outcome that school
dropouts who return to school open themselves to possibilities of improving their quality
of life in the future. The study showed that adult learners are having their dreams
realized. Some students who graduated from the center have gone ahead to colleges and
trained for professional skills.
The adult learners at BALC will benefit from this study because the instructors
will use adult learning teaching skills in their instruction. The end result will be students
108
performing successfully in their final exams and gaining access to vocational training
colleges and institutions of higher learning.
Far-Reaching
Although this study focused on a specific adult learning center in Kenya, the
issues at play are faced by school dropouts in Kenya and possibly other African
countries. Anyone who understands adult learning could use the findings of this study to
address the school dropout problem in Kenya. The study can also be useful to other
African countries where adult learning is not fully developed.
Conclusion
Both the classroom observations and interviews with current students, former
students, teachers, and the principal of BALC revealed that the center was facing several
challenges that could inhibit good performance of students in their final exam. Although
the research revealed many areas which needed attention professional development for
instructors was identified as the project.
The project development included pedagogy and andragogy teaching
methodologies, self-directed learning approaches, self-management strategies and
learning techniques to improve the performance in their standardized exam. A 3 day
detailed workshop plan, which is ready for implementation, was developed. I conclude
this study with reflections and conclusion in Section 4.
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Section 4: Reflections and Conclusions
Introduction
In Section 4, I present an introspective approach to the project from the point of
the researcher. The discussion will begin with the strengths and then proceed to
limitations. There will be a discussion on how the limitations of the project could be
addressed. The impact of the project to the researcher in terms of scholarship, leadership
and change will be discussed. I will conclude with the project’s potential impact on social
change and recommendations for future research.
Project Strengths
The major strength of the project is that I endeavored to involve instructors in
professional development at the research site. The data collection was adequate to enable
me, as the researcher, to identify the major areas that could be addressed to improve
learning by adult learners. The data I gathered from four different categories of
participants (current students, formers students, teachers, and the principal as well as
classroom observations) revealed the problem that the instructors at the research site
needed some basic training in methodology and adult education approaches. According to
the data collected from the instructors and the principal, the instructors were open as they
expressed their lack of training in methodology and how to teach adult learners. It was
quite evident that the instructors would be willing to participate in a professional
development program.
Some of the strengths of the project include the comparison of pedagogy and
andragogy assumptions in teaching approaches (Taylor, 2009). This comparison is
110
important because it makes adult instructors adjust their methodologies to accommodate
adult learners who are self-directed learners (e.g., Merriam, 2001). Another notable
strength of the project is the micro-teaching component. Teachers are faced with the
challenge of to make sure that they teach effectively. Classroom management can
contribute to whether a teacher is a good teacher or a bad teacher. Micro-teaching
exposes new teachers to a non-threatening environment where the student teacher
prepares and presents a short lesson to his/her peers (Fisher & Burrell, 2011). Finally,
another strength of the project is self-management techniques which include motivation,
time management and management of physical and social environment (Dembo & Seli,
2008).
Recommendations for Remediation of Limitations
Lack of financial resources inhibits school development and leads to poor
examination results (Julius & Bawane, 2011). Julius and Bawane (2011) further noted
that teachers cannot improve the quality of learning without good textbooks, or other
classroom learning resources. The project has some limitations and challenges that could
inhibit its implementation. One of the limitations is lack of resources for the
implementations of the project. The center operates with limited finances so running a
workshop for instructors would add to the center’s financial burden. It would be hard to
come up with my recommendations on how to remediate the problem of resources.
There could be many ways of solving the problem but I see one lasting solution of
solving the problem is to have the Ministry of Education involved in funding adult
learning centers in the country. Conversely, because it may take a long time before the
111
ministry of education starts funding adult learning centers, the project cannot wait
indefinitely. The principal will plan to hold the workshop at the center instead of holding
it in a hotel, which would be expensive for the center.
Another limitation is length of the workshop. The workshop will be for only 3
days, which is not adequate for professional development for the instructors, some of
whom have not had formal teacher training. This limitation could be remediated by
having other workshops in the future. The planned workshop could be seen as an
introduction and then other professional development programs could follow.
On how I can address the problem differently, I would consider having an
ongoing professional development program for the instructors. This could be weekly or
monthly, where by a facilitator could come to the center after classes and hold in-service
training for the instructors. To ensure that all the instructors participate, there could be a
requirement that one has to cover several training sessions in a year to keep his/her job as
an instructor.
Other alternatives that might be considered in addressing this type of problem
would be having adult education programs for teacher training. This could be a division
in universities that have teacher-training programs. Another alternative could be to have a
licensing program that would require instructors to cover an adult education program
before they are licensed.
Scholarship
My project on professional development introduced me to scholarship in a way I
had never imagined before. I learned a great deal on scholarship on teaching and learning
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(SoTL). According to Zhang (2014), SoTL is the departure from traditional pedagogical
approaches to teaching where emphasis is on the teaching practices and methods used by
instructors over the years. SoTL advocates for conceptualizing instructional strategies,
implementation of research methods, and disseminating pertinent results. It also involves
looking critically at teaching methods commonly used in schools. For me to develop
SoTL attitude in my scholarship I need to keep abreast with SoTL literature such as
journals, be involved in constant research and make use of SoTL sources such as internet
(e.g., Zhang, 2014).
My scholarship was also informed by andragogical assumptions with emphasis on
self-directed learning for adult learners (e.g., Merriam, 2001). Self-directed learning
According to Du (2012) has several features, he noted, “SDL holds the promise in
developing student-centered curricular (e.g., problem-based learning) and lifelong
autonomous learners. The key features of SDL include reflection, goal setting and
orientation towards action” (p.4). During the years I took to study my doctoral degree I
realized that there is different between theory and practice. While I acknowledge that as a
scholar I have to be involved with lifelong learning, I also realize that I have to plan on
how I can be involved in lifelong learning. While there could be many ways of
involvement in lifelong learning, research and publications will guide my scholarship.
Project Development and Evaluation
The impetus and the subsequent development of the project was based on the
analysis of data collected from the stakeholders of the research site. For professional
developments to be implemented efficiently, priority needs and objectives of teachers
113
must be identified. Determining the priority learning-needs could be obtained through
development of questionnaires and surveys from teachers’ input (Phillips, Balan, &
Manko, 2011). As the professional development focuses on instructional improvement
methods, individualized learning needs are identified which enables educators review
instructional practice to improve the learning-teaching process (Phillips, Balan, &
Manko, 2011). My role was to design and develop the project. Given that I will not be
involved in the implementation of the project, I am hoping that the adult learning center’s
administration will find the resources to implement it. I am also hoping that the
instructors will not have apathy towards the project but show willingness in participating
in the professional development program.
Any professional development must have both formative and summative
evaluations. Formative evaluation is ongoing, which informs the progress being made
whereas summative comes at the closure of the project (Tomlinson, 2008). It is my hope
that once the project is implemented, there will be on going checks and assessments of
the instructors to ensure that they are practicing what they learned.
Leadership and Change
Scholars do not agree on a single definition of leadership (Hoy & Miskel, 2008).
Some leadership scholars align leadership to bureaucratic attributes, whilst other scholars
relate leadership to personality characteristics and the third group links leadership to
behavioral dimensions (Ngcobo, 2012). Albeit differences of leadership scholars on the
conceptualization of leadership, there seems to be consensus among those scholars that, it
is the ability to influence other people’s attitudes and energizing of participation in
114
activities which could lead to success of an organization (Ngcobo, 2012). Defining what I
may call democratic leadership, Faircloth and Tippeconnic III (2013) described
leadership as multifaceted and shaped by the context in which it takes place, and that
active leadership should be in the hands of those who are being led rather than solely
resting on an authoritative figure.
People react differently to change. Basseit (2011) explained how introduction of
change makes people threatened to an extent of literally becoming ill, he further
explained that the fear of change produces the adrenaline response of either fight or
flight. While there is plethora of ways on change management, Basseit’s (2011) view,
which I concur, is to increase the volume of dissatisfaction levels, demonizing the enemy,
declaring war (whether literal or figurative) and mobilizing the public in order to effect
change. While there is need at the local level (the center) to plan for change in using self-
directed approaches in teaching, at the national level school dropouts are either
overlooked or deliberately ignored. Their plight continues to be pathetic because they are
not able to get jobs to feed their families and take their children to school. The Kenyan
ministry of education will need to introduce reforms that should include mitigating for
school dropouts.
Analysis of Self as Scholar and Practitioner
As I conducted an introspective analysis of myself as a scholar, I realized that my
pursuit for a doctoral degree, revealed some positive traits. With regard to my doctoral
studies, this undertaking gave me the opportunity of exponentially increasing my
knowledge not only on self-directed learning (andragogy) and professional development,
115
but also on global trends in higher education and adult learning. This revelation has made
me aware of the pathetic state the Kenyan school dropouts are, and challenged me as a
scholar to investigate how I can bring social change to the barrage of school dropouts in
Kenya.
Another trait is resilience, I realized that a scholar has to be disciplined and be
able to research and submit his/her findings within a reasonable time. During my doctoral
journey, I made several trips to Kenya where I faced the challenge of slow Internet
connection and sometimes went to areas where there was no electricity. Despite the
challenges of Internet and power, I was able to do my assignments and submit them on
time.
The greatest challenge was during my short stint in Kenyan politics where I was
running for a seat in Kenyan parliament. I had to do my assignments within and between
my campaign trails and submit them. I had also to read contributions from my cohorts
and respond accordingly as well as posting my contributions on the blackboard for my
classmates and professor to respond. My desire to be involved in politics was due to my
love for the country, and I was looking for an opportunity to be involved in nation
building. I did not win the election so I came back to the US to continue with my studies.
Although this move interfered with expediting the completion of my degree, participating
in Kenyan politics taught me invaluable lessons.
As a practitioner, I did not have the privilege of teaching in a formal institution,
but my experience with informal learners gave me a great exposure on how adults learn,
116
their experiences and their self-directedness. As an educator, I look forward to teaching
formal students where I will practice my professional skills.
Analysis of Self as Project Developer
The project was born from plethora of activities. These included many hours of
study, researching in literature about school dropouts in Kenya, writing a prospectus
which helped me solidify my thoughts on researching on empowerment of high school
dropouts in Kenya as well as making contacts with adult education stakeholders in
Kenya. The literature review was both exciting and at the same time frustrating. It was
exciting because I reviewed literature not only from Kenya and the United States, but
also globally. It was interesting to compare educational systems from different parts of
the world. While I was bursting with excitement of getting so many sources from the
international stage, my frustration was real when it came to reviewing African literature
in general and Kenyan in particular. Kenyan literature on adult education was almost
non-existence.
My travel from the USA to Kenya for data collection confirmed my belief that the
plight of Kenyan high school dropouts is bleak and that there needs to be immediate
mediation. My interviews with adult learners and instructors made me have a paradigm
shift. Originally I was thinking of how the adult learners could be empowered, but it
never occurred to me that professional development for the instructors was one way of
empowering the school dropout who had returned to school. The whole process led to
fundamental growth on my part in terms of developing skills on needs analysis,
developing a conceptual framework, getting the right sources, designing professional
117
development workshop, identifying relevant topics, writing lesson plans and designing an
evaluation.
The Project’s Potential Impact on Social Change
As young boys growing up in Easter part of Kenya where there was and still has a
lot of poverty, we used to be told that if we work hard and complete high school
successfully I shall never be poor. To a great extent this saying was true to many young
people who completed school in 1970s and 1980s. My father sold our only family land to
pay my fees in high school. According to my father and many parents like him, educating
children was an investment because they believed that when their children get jobs, they
will support the family. Education brings social change in that, it reduces poverty by
making the poor more productive and equipping them with skills needed in participating
in economy and society. According to Julius (2011), education assists in poverty
reduction by contributing to the increase of labor force efficiency and enhancing
economic growth.
The beneficiaries of this project are adult learners at the center who face many
challenges as they study and prepare for KCSE exam. The lesson learned here was that,
for the students to perform well, the instructors will need to be trained on how to teach
adult learners. The project will have a domino effect because the professional
development is intended to first train the teachers who will go ahead and use their new
teaching skills to prepare adult learners for their KCSE exam.
I learned that school dropouts who returned to the center to complete high school
had great opportunities of developing themselves, by gaining access to vocational
118
training or higher education. There are success stories from former students who were
interviewed during the study. They believe that going back to school gave them
opportunities to pursue further studies. The fact that graduates from the learning center
can get a second chance by attaining the required qualification for vocational training or
higher education is enough proof that, the project has potential impact on social change
locally. However, it is worth noting that the potential impact on social change is limited
due to funding and curriculum. The center does not get enough funding either from the
government or any other source, which means that facilities, teaching materials, and
professional development for instructors is impacted by lack of funding. The curriculum
too is not designed for adult learners but for high school students who have better
equipped school facilities, learning materials, and funding from the government.
School attrition in Kenya is a national problem which continues to bother both
educators and national leaders. The project points to how the dropout problem could be
solved and by so doing alleviate poverty in the society, thus contributing to social change.
The same findings could be useful in most East African countries because they share a
similar educational history with Kenya. African South of Sahara countries which have
similar school dropout problems could also benefit from the study.
Implications, Applications, and Directions for Future Research
Different countries have different ways of mitigating for their school dropouts.
According to Hoffman (2011) Norway, Netherlands, Australia and South Korea have
programs for assisting school dropouts go back to school and complete high school. The
Swedish government has a program for school dropouts to go back and complete high
119
school (Alexanderson, 2011). In the United States, Bloom (2010) explained how the
GED credentials give school dropouts access to postsecondary education. In Canada too,
students who drop out of high school have a second chance of going back to school and
getting a high school diploma (McGregor & Ryan, 2011).
The implication of the project is that in the short term, the learning center has to
continue addressing the problems which can be solved locally such as professional
development for instructors. Although there are many hardship experienced by the center,
there are many adult learners who have faith in the center, who believe that it will
empower them to better their lives by gaining access to college. However, in the long
term, there needs to be a national reform on adult education where funding, training of
teachers, and curriculum could be addressed.
The application of the project is possible because it does not involve a lot of
logistics such as travelling to a venue site and paying for hotel expenses. The principal
will plan to have the workshop held at the center, have one facilitator, and make minimal
use of learning materials, thus making it economically affordable. There are other adult
learning centers in Kenya which are similar to the institution of study. Although this was
a case study, the same project could be replicated in other centers in Kenya as well.
Future research could be policy on adult education in Kenya. Policy issues such as
government funding adult education came up during this study. Another area which came
up during the study is lack of training for adult learners’ instructors. A study on
establishing teacher training for adult education instructors could be useful. Studies could
also be done to establish whether adult learners in Kenya could have a different
120
curriculum from the regular high school curriculum and a different exam, probably
similar to the United States’ GED model.
Conclusion
In this study, I have outlined how school dropouts could be empowered by
gaining access to vocational training and higher education. Trained instructors would be
catalytic in assisting adult learners achieve their academic aspirations. The strengths of
the project include: adult learning methodologies, emphasis of self-directed learning and
self-management techniques. Lack of resources for the center is one of the major
limitations.
During this study, I experienced growth as a scholar in the following areas;
project development, where I developed a project on professional development. I had
useful lessons on leadership and change where I got to know that people resist change so
leaders must manage change. In scholarship, I learned how to research, analyze and
report data. My growth in project evaluation was profound. I learned to put myself at the
level of the learner and formulated questions which would give feedback to both the
project developer and the facilitator of the project.
The project has potential impact of social change to the adult learners at the
center. They will be able to perform better in their exam and advance their education by
either going to vocational training or colleges. However, lack of resources and an
inflexible curriculum could limit the project potential to improve instructions. The project
could empower the adult learners returning to school by opening the possibilities of
training for profession and improving their chances of getting employment and hence,
121
becoming economically productive members of the society. Lastly, the project could
strengthen teachers’ instruction via the project development program.
122
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Appendix A: The Project
This is professional development project is designed for instructors of adult
learners at Baraka Adult learning Center (BALC) based in a suburb in central Kenya. The
purpose of the project is to in-service the instructors of the learning center who have
never had any training on teaching adult learners. Currently, there are six instructors who
would be participants, however; the principal of the center will be the one to decide
whether to include part-time instructors. The principal will also appoint a competent
facilitator with adult learning teaching skills. The workshop will take place during
school holidays and will run for three consecutive days. There are three sequential parts
to this professional development training for instructors of adult learners:
a.) Teacher training
• Compare pedagogy and andragogy approaches
• Microteaching: instructors to practice teaching by having ten minutes teaching
sessions
• Learn about Self-Directed learning for adult learners
b.) Self-Management Approaches
• Motivating students to learn
• Time Management: Assisting students use time management skills in their
studies.
• Physical and Social Environment: Helping students identify suitable locations for
studying
c.) Learning Techniques Useful in Passing Exams
137
• Practice Testing Technique
• Spacing Effect
138
Workshop Timetable
This timetable serves as a guide to the workshop. The facilitator will be at liberty to make
any changes he/she may deem necessary.
TIME DAY 1 DAY 2 DAY3
9:00 – 10:00
Registration and
Introduction to the
workshop
Self-Directed
learning
Motivation
10:00-11:00
Pedagogy vs
Andragogy
Time Management
Physical and
Social
Environment
11:00-11:30
BREAK BREAK BREAK
11:30-12:30 Micro-Teaching
Micro-Teaching
(two presentations)
Practice
Testing
Technique
12:30-1:30
LUNCH LUNCH LUNCH
1:30-2:30
Prepare Micro-
Teaching Lessons
Micro-Teaching
(two presentations)
Spacing
Effect
2:30-3:00
BREAK BREAK BREAK
3:00-4:00
Prepare Micro-
Teaching Lessons
Micro-Teaching
(two presentations)
Evaluation,
awarding of
certificates
and Closure
139
Introduction
The workshop will take place in a classroom setting. The facilitator will be modeling the
way to teach through lectures, participants’ involvement and interactions, group
discussions,
Lesson one
Pedagogy vs. Andragogy
1 Hour
Learning Objectives:
The participants will be able to:
Define pedagogy
Explain the difference between pedagogy and andragogy
Explain how they can encourage their learners to be self-directed.
Introduction (5 minutes)
The facilitator asks the participants the meaning of the word “pedagogy”.
- Various participants volunteer to give the definition.
The facilitator summarizes the definition of pedagogy as follows;
• It is the art or profession of teaching
• It is the preparatory training or instruction.
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Step 1 (3 min.).
The facilitator using interactive lecture approach outlines the assumptions of andragogy
as follows: self-concept, experience, readiness to learn, orientation to learn, motivation to
learn and need to know.
Step 2 (10 min.).
The facilitator and the participants will discuss the differences between pedagogy and
andragogy.
Table 1. Comparison of assumptions of pedagogy and andragogy
Regarding Pedagogy Andragogy
Concept of the Leaner Role of the learner is a
dependent one
The role of the learner is
more self-directed, but
movement from
dependency to self-
directedness occurs at
different rates for
different persons
Role of the teacher The teacher is
expected to take full
responsibility for
determining what is
being learned, when it
is to be learned, and if
it has been learned.
The teacher has the
responsibility to nurture
this movement towards
self-directedness.
The role of the learner’s
experience
The experience
learners bring to a
learning situation is of
little worth. The
experience from which
the learner will gain
the most is that of the
teacher, the textbook
writer, the audio visual
aid producer, and other
experts.
As people grow and
develop they accumulate
an increasing reservoir of
experience that becomes
an increasingly rich
resource for learning.
People attach more
meaning to learnings
they gain from
experience than those
they acquire passively.
Primary technique of Transmittal Experiential techniques-
141
delivery techniques- lecture,
assigned reading, AV
presentations.
laboratory experiments,
discussion problem-
solving cases, field
experience, and the like.
Readiness to learn People are ready to
learn whatever society
says they ought to
learn. Most people of
the same age are ready
to learn the same
things.
People become ready to
learn something when
they experience a need to
learn it in order to cope
more satisfyingly with
real-life tasks or
problems.
How learning should be
organized
learning should be
organized into a fairly
standardized
curriculum, with a
uniform step-by-step
progression for all
learners.
learning should be
organized around life-
application categories
and sequenced according
to the learner’s readiness
to learn.
Orientation of learning Leaners see education
as a process of
acquiring subject-
matter content, most of
which they understand
will be useful only at a
later time in life.
Learners see education as
a process of developing
increased competence to
achieve their full
potential in life. Learners
want to be able to apply
whatever knowledge and
skill they gain today to
living more effectively
tomorrow. People are
performance-centered in
their orientation to
learning.
Organization of
curriculum
Organized into subject
matter units which
follow the logic of
subject from simple to
complex.
Should be organized
around
competency/development
categories.
Note: “A Single Conversation with a Wise Man is Better than Ten Years of Study: A
Model for Testing Methodologies for Pedagogy and Andragogy,” by B. Taylor and M.
Kroth, 2009, Journal of the Scholarship Teaching &Learning, 9(2) P47
Step 3 (20 min.).
142
Participants discuss the chart and how it relates with their teaching approaches.
The facilitator asks the following questions:
1. The Learner
a.) According to the chart, how would you describe your learners?
b.) Give examples of your learners being self-directed in their learning.
c.) How can you as an instructor encourage your students to be self-directed learners?
2. The Role of Learner’s Experience
a.) According to your knowledge about your learners, how would you describe their
role of experience in learning?
b.) As an instructor how can you make sure that your experience does not become
influential among your students?
Step 4 (10 min.).
The participants get together into three groups of two people per group. They discuss the
question; in which ways can I make my adult learners maximize their experience in their
learning? (The groups take notes and prepare to present to the whole group.).
Step 5 (15 min.).
The groups will get together and one representative from each group will present the
group findings. The presenter will take questions from the participants and can either
answer the question or ask someone from his/her group to answer.
Conclusion (3 min.).
143
The facilitator summarizes the main highlights of the groups and informs the participants
that they will keep on coming back andragogy principles during the workshop.
Lesson Two
Micro-Teaching
Learning Objectives:
The participants will be able to:
a.) Describe the meaning of micro-teaching
b.) Outline the steps of preparing a micro-teaching lesson.
c.) Prepare micro-teaching lesson and present to their peers.
d.) Give feedback to their peers after micro-teaching presentation.
Introduction
The facilitator will use lecture method to define micro-teaching:
Facilitator using multi-media will project a slide on the screen describing micro-teaching
as follows: Microteaching is a short form of teaching practice in a low-risk supportive
environment. Participants prepare 10 to 15 minute lessons, teach it at a workshop to a
small group of peers and receive detailed feedback on their teaching approach and
performance.
The facilitator will project another slide on the screen saying:
According to the definition of micro-teaching why do you think this is a good method of
training teachers how to teach?
• The participants will have a discussion on this question.
144
• The facilitator will find out whether there is anyone who has done micro-teaching
before and solicit for his/her experience.
Step 1: Micro-Teaching Process
Using interactive lecture method, the facilitator will take the participants through the
process of preparing and presenting a micro-teaching lesson as follows:
a. What to Teach
Participants will be encouraged to choose a topic in their field of study and prepare a
short lesson plan to be delivered in 10 minutes.
• Participants will give examples of some of the topics they have taught and why
they think such topic would be appropriate for their micro-teaching lesson.
b. How to Prepare
The facilitator gives the steps one has to have in one’s lesson preparation as follows:
1. Identifying the goal of your lesson.
2. Deciding what you want your students to learn as a result of the lesson
3. Determining the approaches to use so that the learners can best achieve this goal.
The participants will discuss some of the approaches they have used in their teaching
which they think involved the students, were interactive and produced good results.
What is the main activity in this lesson?
- The participants will suggest activities which they have used with their students.
These could include range of teaching methods such as; discussions, role plays,
145
answering pre-prepared questions in groups, summarizing articles, practice use of
materials being taught etc.
c. Lesson Presentation
i. Introduction
ii. Presentation of the main subject/idea
iii. Students’ activity
iv. Summarizing the main idea and closure.
d. Feedback
At the end of each presentation both the participants and the facilitator will
discuss how the presenter performed. The facilitator will give the ground rules that the
purpose of feedback is to encourage the presenter instead of being critical and pointing
out what went wrong or wasn’t done. The bottom line is that the feedback exercise should
be non-threatening.
i. The facilitator’s questions to the presenter as follows:
- How do you feel about your presentation?
- Which area do you think you did well?
- If you were to do it again, what would you do differently?
ii. The facilitator’s questions to the other participants:
- What area of presentation did you enjoy most? Why?
- What did you learn from this presentation which could be helpful to you in your
- micro-teaching?
- Which areas do you suggest change? Why?
146
iii. The facilitator summarizes the main points raised in the discussion then closure.
Assignment: The facilitator informs the participants that they are to prepare a micro-
teaching lesson which they will present to the group within the next two days (Refer to
the workshop program).
Lesson Three
Self-Directed learning
1 Hour
learning Objectives:
The participants will be able to:
Explain the differences between a dependent personality and self-directed person.
Describe the characteristics of a self-directed person.
Describe self-directed learning approaches.
Self-Directed learning
Approaches
Slide No.1 Notes to the facilitator: Self-directed learning approaches were developed
from andragogy assumptions.
147
1. Self-Concept:
Person’s self-concept moves from being a dependent
personality to being self-directed human being as he/she
matures. Adults normally oppose situations imposed on them by
others against their will.
Note: “A Single Conversation with a Wise Man is Better than Ten Years of Study: A
Model for Testing Methodologies for Pedagogy and Andragogy,” by B. Taylor and M.
Kroth, 2009, Journal of the Scholarship Teaching &Learning, 9(2) P46
Slide No.2 Instructors to give examples of some situations where they have faced
resistance from their adult learners.
2. Experience:
There is accumulation of reservoir of experience as a person
matures. Adults come into adult education with a large amount of
prior experiences unlike that of children. Those prior experiences
become a rich resource if they can be used.
Note: “A Single Conversation with a Wise Man is Better than Ten Years of Study: A
Model for Testing Methodologies for Pedagogy and Andragogy,” by B. Taylor and M.
Kroth, 2009, Journal of the Scholarship Teaching &Learning, 9(2) P47
Slide No. 3. The participants will explain what experiences they have observed from their
adult learners.N
3.
Readiness to Learn:
148
A person’s readiness to learn becomes oriented to the development
orientation tasks of his/her social roles as he/she matures. The
appreciation of the relevancy of the topic determines readiness to
learn.
Source “A Single Conversation with a Wise Man is Better than Ten Years of Study: A
Model for Testing Methodologies for Pedagogy and Andragogy,” by B. Taylor and M.
Kroth, 2009, Journal of the Scholarship Teaching &Learning, 9(2) P46
Slide 4. The participants will describe some incidences when their students have shown
readiness to learn as well as when they did not show readiness to learn.
4. Orientation to Learn:
A person’s perspective changes from being postponed of
knowledge to that of immediate application of knowledge as
he/she matures. There is a shift of person’s orientation from
subject-centeredness to problem-centeredness.
Note: “A Single Conversation with a Wise Man is Better than Ten Years of Study: A
Model for Testing Methodologies for Pedagogy and Andragogy,” by B. Taylor and M.
Kroth, 2009, Journal of the Scholarship Teaching & learning, 9(2) P46
Slide 5: The participants will discuss how students get motivated when they perceive that
the knowledge they are getting will help them solve their problems.
149
5. Motivation to Learn:
Motivation to learn is internal as a person matures. Adults are
driven by internal motivators, the desire of self-esteem and goal
achievement despite the pressure of external motivators.
Source: “A Single Conversation with a Wise Man is Better than Ten Years of Study: A
Model for Testing Methodologies for Pedagogy and Andragogy,” by B. Taylor and M.
Kroth, 2009, Journal of the Scholarship Teaching & learning, 9(2) P46
Slide 6. Instructors to discuss some of the goals their adults students would like to
achieve.
6. The Need to Know:
Adults need to know the usefulness of what they are learning.
The teacher’s first task is to help the adult learner become aware of
the need to know. Adults will invest considerable resources when
they deem what they are learning is valuable.
Note: “A Single Conversation with a Wise Man is Better than Ten Years of Study: A
Model for Testing Methodologies for Pedagogy and Andragogy,” by B. Taylor and M.
Kroth, 2009, Journal of the Scholarship Teaching &Learning, 9(2) P46
Slide 7. The participants will give examples of sacrifices some of their adult learners
sacrifice make to return to school.
Self-Directed learning Approaches
150
1. Self-concept
2. Experience
3. Readiness to learn
4. Orientation to learn
5. Motivation to learn
6. Need to know.
Slide 8. Each participant will write a short narrative on one of the assumptions citing
his/her experience with adult learners. The facilitator will assign the participants to
different assumptions to ensure that they are all covered (The narratives will be brought
to the workshop on the beginning of the second day of the workshop. Each participant
will read his/her narrative).
Any Question? / Reflections
Slide 9. Students reflect on how they can use self-directed approaches in their
classrooms.
Lesson Four
Motivating Students to Learn
1 Hour
Learning Objectives
The participants will be able to:
i. Describe the symptoms portrayed by students who are not motivated
ii. Outline ways of motivating students.
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Note to the Facilitator:
Due to repeated failure students get unmotivated, teachers and parents begin to hear student
say, “I don’t want to do this. I don’t care. I hate school. Don’t bother me” (Hock, Deshler, &
Schumaker, 2011, p. 199). Describe the causes of lack of motivation in students.
Introduction (3 min.).
The facilitator asks the participants what the phrase “motivating students to learn” means.
Step1
Motivation
Students get discouraged when studying boring subjects and
sometimes give up or ignore doing their work which would lead
to poor performance in their assessment. Students whose grades
keep on falling tend to be frustrated and continued failure would
lead to believe that he/she cannot perform certain tasks or do well
academically.
Slide No. 1 Participants to share their experiences of students’ frustrations when
studying boring subjects.
Students whose grades keep on falling may need motivation to
keep on studying. Motivation is defined as internal processes or
state which energizes a person to perform a task and accomplish
a goal.
152
Slide No. 2 Participants to discuss how they can motivate a student whose grade
are falling.
Step 2 (10 min.).
Facilitator pairs students in groups of two. The groups list down symptoms portrayed by
students who are not motivated to learn.
Step 3 (10 min.).
i. Participants come together and one person from each group reports their findings.
ii. The facilitator augments the findings of the groups by adding to the symptoms
portrayed by students who lack motivation.
iii. The facilitator leads a discussion on the causes of lack of motivation.
Step 3 (20 min.).
How to Motivate Students
The facilitator will present slides using interactive lecture method.
Motivating Discouraged Students
Instructors Have a Peculiar Role
Slide No.3 Participants discuss why instructors have a peculiar role in motivating
discouraged students.
Encourage Students
Teacher’s approval and positive reinforcement makes Students
enthusiastic to learn especially when they feel that their work is
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appreciated and valued.
Slide No.4
• Ask the instructors to mention some words which could encourage students, e.g.;
good job, excellent etc.
• Ask the students to mention some negative comments from the teacher that could
discourage the learner and possibly make him/her drop out of school.
Offer Learners Rewards
Setting goals and making some reasonable requirements
motivates students to participate. However, some extra
push in the right direction is often necessary for students.
Giving small rewards to students makes learning
enjoyable and encourages students to work harder.
Slide No.5
• Considering that the learning center has limited resources, let the instructors give
suggestions of the items they can offer as incentives to their learners.
• Let the students discuss whether shaming a learner would work positively as a way of
motivation.
Examine the Challenge
.
When the task is matched to students’ level of skill, they
are motivated to learn. Purposely plan the learning
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exercise students are working on to be at the edge of their
abilities and up the difficulty incrementally as the
students improve.
Slide No. 6. Participants to give examples of how they have matched students’ level with
skills and how it worked.
Make it
Interactive
.
Either organize a learning group, or allow students to
identify their own learning partners with whom they can
work together as they share both their moments of
discovery and points of confusion. The learning tasks
could be divided into parts where students alternate being
teacher and student. They will be able to understand and
remember what they are learning if they explain loud to
their peers.
Slide No.7. The participants will discuss how this approach would work in a crowded
classroom.
Your Personal Experience:
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Adult learners come to our center to learn, but they have many
responsibilities of family, job and school. Most of them have no
money for to feed their families and to pay school fees. Such
students do not have school as their priority. Mention some of
the cases you have witnessed which served as de-motivation to
students and how you helped that student to be motivated.
Slide No. 8 Each Participant will give a narrative of the problem and how he/she
responded to it. The rest of the participants will give suggestions on how they would have
responded to such scenario.
Lesson 5
Time Management
1 Hour
Learning Objectives:
The participants will be able to:
i. Define time management
ii. Describe the strategies of good time management.
iii. Develop a system of time planning and management
iv. Develop a weekly schedule which they would use to assist students in daily
and weekly planning.
Time Management: Assisting students to use time management skills in their
studies
156
Text Book- Dembo and Seli (2008), (3
rd
, Ed.), Motivating and learning
Strategies for College Success: A self –management approach. Pp139-164.
Introduction
Define Time Management-
The facilitator will tell ask a student to read aloud on (page 140) “What is Time
Management”?
Step 1: Let one participant read “student Reflections” on page 140.
The facilitator will ask; what are your impressions of this student? (Discussion).
Step 2: Divide the participants in three groups of two participants each.
• Group 1: to read and summarize- “What are some good time management
strategies?”(pp 146-150).
• Group 2: to read and summarize “how do I develop a system of time planning and
management?” (pp. 150-156).
• Group 3: to read and summarize- “what is procrastination? (pp 156-158).
Step 3: Groups gather in the classroom and a leader from each group gives the summary
of the group’s assignment (allow time for questions).
Step 4: The facilitator asks the participants to develop a weekly schedule (see p.154)
which they would use to assist students in daily and weekly planning.
Lesson 6
157
Physical and Social Environment
Learning Objectives
The participants will be able to:
i. List both external and internal distracters which interfere with students’ study
concentration.
ii. Recommend study strategies to students living in small houses how to manage
their physical environment.
iii. Explain why study groups are helpful to students
iv. List the obstacles they would face when forming study groups and how to
overcome them.
v. List ways of making study groups more productive.
Introduction (5 min.).
The Facilitator explains the purpose of the lesson.
• This lesson is on assisting adult learners select an optimal learning environment.
• When a student cannot select an optimal environment he/she can take steps to modify
the physical environment, by switching off the phone.
Step 1 (15 min).
Managing Physical Environment
Facilitator asks:
158
i. There are internal and external distracters. Internal distracters are interference
from within such as worrying, daydreaming and headache. What are other internal
distracters which could interfere with learning?
ii. External distracters are environmental sources of interference (e.g. noise from the
radio or TV.)What are other external distracters?
iii. Name the things to look for when recommending a good learning (study)
environment for your students.
iv. Many of your students live with their families in small houses where they cannot
find a room for personal study. How could you help a student with such challenge
to manage his physical environment?
Step 2. (10 min.).
The facilitator tells participants to read the book; Dembo and Seli (2008), (3
rd
, Ed.),
Pages 170-171, Table on Managing of External and Internal distracters. Facilitator leads
discussion as they go through different distractors and how to respond.
Managing Social Environment
Notes to the facilitator:
• Students learn when they are in structured but flexible groups.
• Management of social environment refers to students studying in groups.
The facilitator leads a discussion as he/she uses the following guiding questions:
159
i. Why do you think study groups would boost your students’ learning?
ii. What are some of the obstacles you would face when forming groups for your
learners? How would you overcome them?
iii. Should the study groups be permanent where students meet to study all the
subject or students could belong to different groups depending on the subject they
are studying? Explain why?
Step 4 (10 min.).
Ask students to pair up in twos and summarize “How can I Help Make My Study Group
More Productive”, Dembo and Seli (2008), (3
rd
, Ed.) pages 178-179.
Conclusion (5 min.). Facilitator asks two participants to read their summary and then
closure.
Lesson Seven
Practice Testing
1 Hour
Learning Objectives:
The participants will be able to:
i. Define practice testing
ii. Explain how they can use practice testing technique to prepare students for
exams.
160
Assignment
Article by Rawson, K., and Dunlosky, J. (2012). When is Practice Testing Effective for
Improving the Durability and Efficiency of Student learning? Education Psychology
Review. 24(3), p419-43.
Instructors and teachers in Kenya schools use Practice Testing technique to prepare
students for standardized exams. The participants (instructors) are not exemption, they
too use practice testing technique to prepare students for their KCSE exam.
Two weeks prior to the workshop, participants will be given the article to read and
summarize how they can effectively use practice testing technique to help their learners
prepare for exams effectively. Participants will present their papers during the workshop.
Each participant will take five minutes to present his/her paper and answer questions
from both the facilitator and the other participants.
Lesson Eight
Spacing Effect
1 Hour
Learning Objectives:
The participants will be able to:
i. Describe spacing effect technique
161
ii. Explain how they can use spacing effect technique to prepare their students for
exams.
Note to the Facilitator:
Three weeks before the workshop the facilitator will distribute the participants an article
by Dunlosky, J., Rowson, C., Marsh, E., Nathan,M., and Willingham D. (2013).
Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions
from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest,
14(1), p4-58.
1. In preparation for the workshop the facilitator will divide the participants into two
groups of three each and ask them to read pages 35 to 40 on “distributed practice”. Each
group member will be asked to prepare a potion in his/her reading to present to the other
group members during the workshop. The three potions are as follows:
i. Distributed practice, general description of distributed practice and why it should
work, and how general are the effects of distributed practice?
ii. Effects in representative educational context and
iii. Issues for implementation and distributed practice: Overall assessment.
2. Other sources for the facilitator to read before the workshop;
i. Vlach, Haley and Sandhofer, Catherine (2012). Distributing learning
over time: The spacing effect in children’s acquisition and generalization
of science concepts. Child Development, 83(4), p1137-1144.
162
ii. Carpenter, S., Cepeda, N., Rohrer, D., Kang, S., and Pashler, H. (2012).
Using spacing to enhance diverse forms of learning: Review of recent
research and implications for instruction. Educational Psychology Review,
24(3), p369-378.
3. The facilitator will gather the participants together and ask the participants how they
can help their adult learners to effectively use spacing effect technique to prepare for
exams.
Evaluation of the Workshop
Please fill in the evaluation form below to show how you rate the workshop.
In numbers 1 to 5, tick one of the choices below 1: strongly disagree, 2: disagree, 3: agree
or 4: strongly agree with the provided statements.
163
1. The workshop was organized very well and the major topics were covered and
clarified.
Strongly disagree, disagree, agree, or strongly agree.
2. The facilitator demonstrated deep understanding and knowledge of the subject matter.
Strongly disagree, disagree, agree, or strongly agree.
3. The facilitator communicated clearly and the materials used were relevant and easy to
understand.
Strongly disagree, disagree, agree, or strongly agree.
4. The facilitator helped me understand how I can effectively use different approaches to
teach my students.
Strongly disagree, disagree, agree, or strongly agree.
5. I will be able to use the professional skills I learned as an instructor of adult learners.
Strongly disagree, disagree, agree, or strongly agree.
6. What skills did you learn from this workshop?
___________________________________________________________________
7. What was the most important aspect of this workshop?
_____________________________________________________________________
8. What were the least useful parts of this workshop?
_______________________________________________________________
9. How can future workshops be improved?
_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________
164
10. Name two or three strategies that you gained from this workshop which you plan to
implement in the near
future._______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
11. Please add any other comments or recommendations about the workshop
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
12. What topics for future workshops would help you to be a better instructor of adult
learners?
_____________________________________________________________________
_______________________
References
Brooks, C. (2011). Space matters: The impact of formal learning environment on
students. British Journal of Education Technology, 42(5), 719-796.
Carpenter, S., Cepeda, N., Rohrer, D., Kang, S., and Pashler, H. (2012). Using spacing to
enhance diverse forms of learning: Review of recent research and implications
165
for instruction. Educational Psychology Review, 24(3), 369-378.
Dembo, M., and Seli, H (2008), (3
rd
Ed.). Motivating and learning strategies for college
success New York, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Dunlosky, J., Rowson, C., Marsh, E., Nathan,M., and Willingham D. (2013). Improving
students’ learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from
cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public
Interest, 14(1), 4-58.
Hock, M., Deshler, D., and Schumaker, J. (2011). Enhancing student motivation through
the pursuit of possible self. Journal of Education Research, 5(3/4), 197-213.
Kasurkar, A., Croiset, G and Ten Cate, J. (2011). Twelve tips to stimulate intrinsic
motivation in students through autonomy supportive classroom teaching delivered
from self-determination theory. Medical Teacher, 33(12), 978-982.
Kvedaraite, N., Jasnauskaite, R., Geleziniene, R and S trazdiene,G. (2013). Forms of
education activities that enhance self-directed learning in adults. Problem of
Education in the 21
st
Century, 15(1), 74-85.
Pedagogy. (n.d.) American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition.
(2011). Retrieved February 4 2015 from
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/pedagogy
Rawson, K., Dunlosky, J. (2012). When is practice testing most effective for improving
the durability and efficiency of student learning. Educational Psychology
166
Review, 24(3), 419-435.
Taylor, B., Kroth, M. (2009). A single conversation with a wise man is better than years
of study: A model for testing methodologies for pedagogy or andragogy. Journal
of the Scholarship of Teaching and learning, 9(2), 42-46.
Tyagi, S. (2011). Teaching learning strategies. The Journal of Progressive Education,
4(1), 49-55.
167
Appendix B: Guiding Questions for Current Students
Participant’s general information: Age, marital status, year dropped out of school and
when went back
1. Causes for dropping out of high school
i) How was your life in high school?
ii) What made you decide to quit school?
iii) What was your situation at the time of leaving school?
2. Returning to school.
i).What did you do after dropping out of school?
ii) How and when did you decide to return to school?
iii).What do you want to achieve in this program?
iv) What advice would you offer to other dropouts about considering returning to
school?
3. Educational Goals
i)) What are your future educational goals?
ii.) What things did you learn from this school which you think are important to
you and why?
168
5. How satisfied are you with the way this school is preparing you for your future
academic achievements and career preparation?
6. What should the school do to improve students’ academic performance in exams?
7. What would be your advice to adults who have not completed high school?
169
Appendix C: Guiding Questions for Former Students
1. Participants’ Profile Information
Age, marital status, year dropped out of school, and when went back
2. Returning to school
i.) What did you do after dropping out of school?
ii) How and when did you decide to return to school?
iii) What did you want to achieve in this program?
3. Educational Goals.
i) What were your educational goals when you came back for this program?
ii) How did the adult learning center prepare you to achieve your academic goals
4. What did you learn from this school which you think is very important to you and
why?
5. How did this program prepare you for what you are doing in your life and your
career?
6. According to your experience with various teaching styles and activities, what
ways have teachers helped you learn best? (probe questions to follow)
7. What changes or improvements in the teaching methods, learning activities and
materials do you suggest the school can use in order to improve students’
learning? (Probe questions to follow).
170
Appendix D: Guiding Questions for Instructors
Profile Information: total number of years taught, number of years taught adult learners,
subject areas.
1. Students’ attitude towards learning
i) What is the attitude of students in your classes towards learning?
ii) How do you assist students to overcome their learning challenges?
2. Teaching Methods
i) Which teaching methods do you find to be effective in teaching adult learners?
What happens when you use these methods with your students?
ii) Which teaching methods do you believe are less effective and why?
iii) According to your experience, how do adult learners in your classes compare with
how regular high school students learn in school? What differences in
learning have you noticed?
3. Curriculum
i.) What are your thoughts on how the current curriculum meets students’
needs?
ii.) What changes or improvements in the teaching methods, learning
activities, and materials do you suggest the school could use in order to
improve the students’ learning?
171
4. During the observation I noticed that students/ (or you)
were__________________. Could you tell me about this activity? (More follow-
up questions will be asked during the interview).
172
Appendix E: Guiding Questions for the Principal
Profile Information: number of years as a teacher, number of years as an administrator,
number of years at the school.
1. Tell me about the background and the experiences of the students who do
complete the program in this school. What has influenced these graduates to be
successful?
2. How do you think students can be motivated to remain in school and complete
the program?
3. According to your experience, how do adult learners compare to regular high
school students in how they learn and live their lives?
4. How does the exit exam suit these adult learners?
5. What recommendations do you have about improving adult secondary education
in Kenya?
6. What are your thoughts on how current curriculum meets students’ needs?
7. What changes or improvements in the teaching methods, learning activities, and
materials do you suggest the school could use in order to improve students’
learning? (Also, follow-up questions will be asked during the interview).
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Appendix F: Classroom Observation Guide
Name of the Teacher: ________________________________________
Class: ______________________________________________________
Areas of Observation Comments
CLASSROOM ARRANGEMENT
• Physical set up of the classroom
• Sitting arrangements of the
students
• Equipment available and in use
• Overall perception of (comfort,
appropriateness for adults)
LEARNER ENGANGEMENT AND
ACTIVITY
• Patterns of talking (teacher,
students, amount).
• Quality and topics of discussions
• Learner’s activities (listening,
174
not listening, distractions).
• Overall learner engagement and
differences among types (age,
gender).
• Overall perception of adult
earners.
TEACHING METHODS, PROCESS
AND STYLE
Cont.
• Address (how the teacher
addresses students, how students
address the teacher)
• Missing areas/items:
--use of visuals (chalk board, map,
demonstration etc.)
-lecture method style
• Questioning types, mode and
175
response to student questions.
• Motivation and encouragement
(how the teacher deals with
individual students with need).
