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Verbum et Ecclesia
ISSN: (Online) 2074-7705, (Print) 1609-9982
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Authors:
Obiorah M. Jerome
1
Favour C. Uroko
1
Aliaons:
1
Department of Religion and
Cultural Studies, University of
Nigeria, Nigeria
Corresponding author:
Favour C. Uroko,
favour.urok[email protected]
Dates:
Received: 27 Jan. 2018
Accepted: 22 June 2018
Published: 30 Aug. 2018
How to cite this arcle:
Jerome, O.M. & Uroko, F.C.,
2018, ‘Tearing of clothes: A
study of an ancient pracce
in the Old Testament’,
Verbum et Ecclesia 39(1),
a1841. hps://doi.org/
10.4102/ve.v39i1.1841
Copyright:
© 2018. The Authors.
Licensee: AOSIS. This work
is licensed under the
Creave Commons
Aribuon License.
Introducon
From the perspective of modern readers of the Old Testament (OT), who are separated from its
world in time, space and cultural background, tearing garments is utterly strange. Its prevalence
in the OT and at some key points in the New Testament (NT) incites a search for its significance.
Did the persons in the world of the Bible delight in some dramatic scenes that were devoid of any
importance? What could have led someone to rend his or her garments in public? Most of the
occurrences of this ritual seem to have been performed by important persons like kings or royal
officials.
If human beings have to link their painful emotions to the dress they are wearing, it most probably
means that dress has some significance to the person who wears it. Therefore, the first part of this
article includes a brief investigation of the symbolism of dress and dressing in some of the OT
texts that mention or allude to this subject. This we hope will elucidate the original meaning of
tearing one’s clothes in the OT. The aim is to have an overview of the distribution of the ritual of
tearing garments in the OT.
An overview of the symbolism of clothing in
the Old Testament
Fig leaves woven into loincloths by the first parents of humankind improvisationally served to
protect what they discovered to be nakedness (Gn 3:7). Deviation from the divine command made
them aware of the need for modesty. Their makeshift outfit achieved its purpose to an extent.
However, a more adequate covering made by God (Gn 3:21) for this first couple protected them
more than their loincloths for the Creator made for them an undergarment or tunic (תנ ְתָ) from skins
(Clifford-Murphy 1992). From this inception of the human use of clothing, its two basic purposes
are for warmth and for the reasons of modesty (Cronin, Argent & Collett 2017; Ze’ev 2007).
Besides these two basic purposes, clothing, which is a pervasive human need and symbol,
portrays status or position of a person. An individual is identified by what the person wears.
There are, for instance, royal robes for kings (Es 6:8). Genesis 38:14 provides a clue that in the
world of the Hebrew Bible, widows had special clothing that distinguished them from other
women (Shilo 2005:32). Mourning garments ( ל ֶב ֵ֗א ־י ֵדְג ִב) are also mentioned (cf. 2 Sm 14:2) which
indicates that persons who were mourning generally wore specific garments. Prisoners had their
own distinctive attire (2 Ki 25:29). Priests and others who had special cultic functions to perform
were known by their apparel carefully prepared for their ministry (Ex 28:2). Hairy mantle
associated with prophets and visionaries in Zechariah 13:4 could suggest that these had unique
Tearing of clothes occurs in sorrowful occasions but there is a class of person that the law
excludes from this custom. This article attempts a synopsis and a synchronised presentation of
all the occurrences of this phenomenon in the Old Testament. Particular attention is paid to the
verbal roots and mood employed for the action of rending clothes, words used for clothes,
persons performing the action, reasons for the action and contexts. The specific objective of the
study is to elucidate this ancient practice, especially the contexts in which it is found in the Old
Testament.
Intradisciplinary and/or interdisciplinary implications: The research on ancient Israel’s
practice of tearing clothes is a biblical analysis of this phenomenon in the Old Testament. It is
discovered that this practice was used as an external manifestation of personal or communal
dolorous experience, still practised among Jews today. Disciplines implicated are sociology
and psychology.
Tearing of clothes: A study of an ancient
pracce in the Old Testament
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garb that distinguishes them in the society. Virgin daughters
of the king had their characteristic described in 2 Samuel
13:18 as a beautiful robe (םי
֑
ִליִעְמ). Persons in festive mood
dressed accordingly to show their contentment and joy
(Jdg 10:3; Es 8:15; Ec 9:8). They wear ‘no beggars dress, but
the beggars’ robe that befits it’ (Gunkel 2016:20).
Clothing differentiates the rich from the poor. However,
Edwards (1992:232) reveals that the names of the attire for
each of these two social classes do not seem to be significant
for the sacred writers. Hebrew generic term for garments is
beged בֶּגֶד, which occurs more than any other term for clothing.
A less frequent word that also indicates garments in general
is śimlāh or śamlāh, even though it can also mean a specific
type of garment. It refers to mantle, cloak or cape (Ex 12:34; 1
Sm 21:10[9]; 1 Ki 11:30; Rt 3:3) (Niehr 2004:159). It is useful
for covering at night; therefore, the law enjoins on
moneylenders not to keep the mantle of the creditors until
morning (Ex 22:25–27; Dt 24:13). Kuttōnet is another specific
garment; it is an undergarment or tunic, worn by both men
and women. It occurs in the phrase k
e
tōnet passim for the
special garment which Jacob made for his son Joseph
(Gn 37:3) and for the royal garments of virgins (2 Sm 13:18).
There is also m
e
‘îl; it is a term for a coat, robe, ‘a long outer
garment open at the front’ (Ze’ev 2007:213). It is worn by
important persons like kings and princes (1 Sm 15:27; 18:4;
24:5, 11; Ezk 26:16; Job 1:20; 2:12), daughters of David
(2 Sm 13:18) and high priest (Ex 28:31; 29:5; 39:22; Lv 8:7). It is
a sign of royal or sacred office (McKenzie 1965:144).
Garments are considered an important and precious property
of a person most probably because of the material from which
they were made as well as the energy expended in producing
them. They can be expensive and thus were given as gifts
(Gn 45:22) and taken for booty in battle (Jdg 14:12). Kings had
special guards for their wardrobe (2 Ki 22:14). Garments are
precious possessions of a person who has them.
Rending of clothing in the Old
Testament
Texts examined here are only those that clearly indicate
moments of deep sorrow, especially something that has
already happened or is believed to have occurred. Tearing
one’s clothes as a sign of profound sorrow differs from this;
therefore, they do not form part of our study here.
From a general survey of the ritual of tearing clothes in the
OT, it is observed that it occurs mostly in narrative sections of
the OT. In the Pentateuch, it is found in these texts: Genesis
37:29,34; 44:12–13; Leviticus 10:1–7; 13:45; 21:10; Numbers
14:1–9. The highest occurrence is in the Former Prophets:
Joshua 7:3–6; Judges 11:34–35; 1 Samuel 4:12; 2 Samuel 1:11–
12; 3:31; 13:19; 13:30–31; 1 Kings 21:20–27; 2 Kings 2:12; 5:7–8;
6:26–30; 11:14; 18:37; 22:11. It is found in the following texts of
the Latter Prophets: Isaiah 36:22 which is parallel to 2 Kings
18:37 and Isaiah 37:1 which is parallel to 2 Kings 18:13–37. In
Jeremiah 36:21–24, it is said of King Jehoiakim of Judah that
he and his servants did not tear their clothes when they read
the letter sent by Jeremiah through Baruch. In a context of the
call to repentance in Joel 2:13, the addressees are exhorted to
rend their heart and not their garments. Among the writings,
the practice of tearing one’s clothes is seen in Job 1:20; 2:12;
Esther 4:1; Ezra 9:5; 2 Chronicles 23:13//2 Kings 11:14;
34:19//2 Kings 22:11. It also occurs in the Deuterocanonical
Books: Judith 14:16, 19; 1 Maccabees 2:14; 3:47; 4:39; 11:71.
The Book of Leviticus records three times the practice of
tearing clothes and none of these actually describes an action
that took place. Two of these are laws: the first seen in
Leviticus 13:45 states that persons who have leprous disease
shall wear torn clothes and dishevelled hair. The second (Lv
21:10) is a law forbidding hākkōhēn hāggādôl ‘the high priest’
to tear his vestments and dishevel his hair because of his
status among the people. In Leviticus 10:1–7, Moses
commands Aaron and his sons not to tear their garments and
dishevel their hair at the death of Nadab and Abihu who
were slain because they offered unholy fire before the Lord.
These three texts of Leviticus will be useful in the
understanding of passages where tearing clothes is discussed.
A study of these passages is organised under the following
headings: the actors and their social status, a reason for
tearing garments, the type of garments involved, verb of
action used in the narrative and other actions performed
with the tearing of clothes.
Social status of actors
The first occurrence of the practice of tearing clothes in the
Pentateuch is in the story of Joseph. There are three instances
and three categories of individuals who tore their garments
in this long narrative (Gn 37–50). Reuben, the first son of
Jacob, with some sense of responsibility as the eldest son
(Gn 37:29) (Westermann 1987) saved Joseph from death.
He acted in the capacity of the first in the family of many
brothers. Second is Jacob (Gn 37:34), the father of the
house. The third group consists of the ten brothers of
Joseph (Gn 44:12–13). The action of tearing clothes by these
three categories of individuals revolves around the person
of Joseph.
The only occurrence of tearing garments in the Pentateuch
outside Joseph’s story is in Numbers 14:1–9 which recounts
how Joshua son of Nun and Caleb son of Jephuneh tore their
garments. They were trusted men and Israelite spies sent by
Moses to reconnoitre the Land of Canaan. They were
respected and honoured by the people for they were living
symbols of fervent faith and trust in God. Furthermore, they
were very optimistic about being able to possess the Promised
Land.
Besides these two reconnoitres who were motivators of faith
in God, Israelite leaders were frequently involved in tearing
of garments for various reasons which will be pointed out
in the next section of this article. Their actions are seen
mostly in the Former Prophets or the historical part of the OT.
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These leaders include Joshua who was the immediate
successor of Moses (Jos 7:1–6); Jephthah, a judge (Jdg 11:34–35);
David and his close associates, who were most likely to be
the king’s eminent officials (2 Sm 1:11–12; 13:30–31); Joab, an
army general, and fellow soldiers (2 Sm 3:31); Hushai of
Archite who was King David’s friend (2 Sm 15:32); Ahab,
king of Israel (1 Ki 21:20–27); Prophet Elisha (2 Ki 2:12); a
king of Israel (2 Ki 5:7–8; 6:26–30); Queen Athaliah of Judah
(2 Ki 11:14); Eliakim, Shebna and Joab who were officials
at the king’s palace (2 Ki 18:37); King Hezekiah of Judah
(2 Ki 19:1); King Josiah of Judah (2 Ki 22:11). Still, in the
Former Prophets, others who were not leaders but involved
in tearing their garments include Tamar, daughter of David
and sister of Absalom (2 Sm 13:19), and an unidentified man
from the tribe of Benjamin mentioned in 1 Samuel 4:12.
Perhaps, leaders are mostly mentioned as tearing their
clothes in this section of the Bible because its varied
narratives concentrate more on their actions as those at the
helm of national affairs.
In the Latter Prophets, some of the examples of tearing clothes
have their parallels in the Historical Books: the episode
narrated in 2 Kings 18:37 on how Eliakim, Shebna and Joab
tore their garments is the same in Isaiah 36:22. Similarly,
Hezekiah’s tearing of garments in 2 Kings 19:1 is seen again in
Isaiah 37:1. In addition to these, there is only one record of the
actual tearing of garments and it was by 80 men from
Shechem, Shiloh and Samaria (Jr 41:5). These men have been
described as pilgrims who were on their way to Jerusalem
(Holladay 1989). There is an instance where King Jehoiakim
and his servants were expected to rend their garments but
they did not care to do so (Jr 36:21–24). Finally, in Joel 2:13,
the prophet admonishes his addressees to rend their heart
and not their garment. The second stich of this verse
(׃הֽ ָע ָרָה ־לַע ם
֖
ָחִנְו דֶס ֶ֔ח ־ב ַרְו ֙םִיַּ֙פ ֶר
֤
ֶא א ֔ה) elucidates the meaning of
the prophet’s injunction: it was a call for repentance.
Just as in the Latter Prophets where some of the narratives
have their parallels in the Historical Books, two examples of
tearing garments in the writings are also narrated in the
Former Prophets. These are 2 Chronicles 23:13 (cf. 2 Ki 11:14)
which is about Queen Athaliah and 2 Chronicles 34:19 (cf. 2 Ki
22:11) on Josiah, King of Judah. Other example of tearing
garments in the writings is Job, presented as an affluent
righteous person who was unjustly afflicted (Job 1:20).
In the Deuterocanonical books, leaders who participated in
the tearing garments are included: Bagoas, an official at the
Babylonian palace (Jud 14:16); leaders of the Assyrian army
(Jud 14:19); Mattathias, a priest, and his sons (1 Macc 2:14);
Judas, who was also called Maccabeus, and his brothers; he
was a leader of the people (1 Macc 3:47; 4:39); Jonathan, a
leader of the people (1 Macc 11:71). The whole population
of Gazara, a gentile city (1 Macc 13:45), also tore their
garments.
If Jacob and his sons are considered as special leaders of the
people because of their status as the eponym and ancestors of
the Israelites, respectively, the predominant social condition
of persons involved in tearing clothes in OT is leadership,
persons of a high social standard, to which one can add the
princess Tamar. The prevalence of this practice among
prominent individuals can be attributed to the narrators’
deliberate focus on the leading class of the people. The next
step in our study could shed more light on this.
Tracing the reasons for tearing clothes
in the Old Testament
The following cursory reading of the texts where persons tore
their garments in the OT is aimed at eliciting the various
reasons for this ritual. Reuben tore his garments (Gn 37:29)
when he was convinced that his plan to save Joseph had been
foiled by his brothers. He seems to nurture some affection for
Joseph in spite of the conjoint conspiracy of Jacob’s sons to
eliminate Joseph. His determination to prevent fratricide
as well as his deep sorrow at Joseph’s apparent death
corroborates this. Two things must have motivated Reuben’s
action of tearing his clothes at Joseph’s seeming death: first
was his position as the eldest of his brothers and second was
his love and concern for Joseph whom he referred to in the
narrative as hayyeled, ‘the boy’, indicating the tender age of
his younger brother.
When the story of the feigned death of Joseph reached their
father Jacob, his immediate reaction was to rend his garments
(Gn 37:34). He did so at the news of the death of a son whom
he manifestly loved more than his other sons. What is at play
here is the strong father–son bond which Jacob thought that
death had severed. A father feels the pain of the death of a
most cherished son.
The third instance of tearing clothes in Joseph’s story occurs in
Genesis 44:12–13 and it was performed by the 10 sons of Jacob.
Their persuasive words made Jacob allow them to return to
Egypt with Benjamin at the request of Joseph whose identity
was still concealed from them. They were in utter confusion
when, as planned by Joseph, Benjamin was convicted of
stealing the Egyptian governor’s cup. Punishment for the
culprit was already announced before their sacks were searched
(Gn 44:9); Benjamin would die and they themselves would
become slaves of this governor. The thought of losing the
second brother and consequently not fulfilling the promise
they made to their father incited their rending of clothes. They
felt responsible for protecting the life of Benjamin and
preventing further grief of their father. This responsibility was
greatly threatened and life was in danger (Liubov 2014).
Joshua son of Nun and Caleb son of Jephuneh tore their
garments (Nm 14:1–9) because the Israelites rebelled against
God and manifested lack of faith in him. This was in contrast
to the ardent faith of these two men and their eagerness
to enter and possess the Promised Land. Their fellow
countrymen wanted to go back to Egypt. They tore their
garments (Nm 9:6) in dismay at the people’s faithlessness.
They were disappointed at the disbelief manifested by
others. That which they cherished so much was greatly
endangered.
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The death of 36 Israelites killed by the men of Ai as a divine
punishment for the sin of Achan son of Carmison who
incurred God’s anger by defiling sacred things (Js 7:1–6)
made Joshua rend his garments (Js 7:6). As the leader of the
people, he was greatly moved by the death of those under
him. These ill-fated men lost their lives; they were among
those who went to fight the enemy. Death of his subjects
motivated Joshua’s action of tearing his clothes.
Would Jephthah have torn his clothes if another person other
than his only daughter had been the first to meet him? This
valiant judge warrior vowed to God to sacrifice the first
person who would meet him in his house when returning
victorious from his war expedition with the Ammonites.
Unfortunately for him, it was his only child that came out of
the door of his house to meet him. He tore his garments at the
pain of losing his daughter (Jdg 11:29–40). He articulated his
emotions in these words to his daughter (Jdg 11):
Alas, my daughter! You have brought me very low; you have
become the cause of great trouble to me. For I have opened my
mouth to the Lord, and I cannot take back my vow. (v. 35)
Jephthah tore his garment because of what he was convinced
would befall his daughter.
In 1 Samuel 4:12, a man of the tribe of Benjamin tore his
garments because of the great calamities that befell Israel: the
Philistines defeated them killing 30 000 foot soldiers; the
ark was captured, and the two sons of Eli – Hophni and
Phinehas – also died (1 Sm 4:10–11). His action was a reaction
to an event that had occurred. He mourned as he ran to bring
the sad news to the city, particularly to Eli.
An Amalekite, whom Saul asked to kill him, accomplished
the deed but tore his garment at the horror of what had
happened (2 Sm 1:1–10). Tearing his clothes was for him a
means of expressing his sorrow at the death of the king or a
feeling of remorse for having quickened the death of Saul,
even though Saul himself wanted it so.
Rending of garments by David and his officials at the
death of Saul and Jonathan was also a sign of mourning
(2 Sm 1:11–12). They bewailed an event that had already
happened. Strong feelings of the loss of dear ones made them
do this.
In 2 Samuel 3:31, we have an instance where one is
commanded to tear his garment for having killed another
person. Joab killed Abner in revenge for the offence Abner
committed against him; Abner killed Joab’s brother (2 Sm
3:30) (Hamilton 2004:308). David considered this murder an
unjust course and compelled Joab to rend his garments as a
sign of mourning. It is taken for granted that Joab obeyed the
king’s command, even though the narrative is silent about
this. Joab could not have disobeyed David’s command.
Tearing garments in this context is taken as a necessary sign
of mourning for the dead, even when it had to be imposed by
a higher authority.
David’s daughter, Tamar, tore (2 Sm 13:19) her royal ‘long
robe with sleeves’ (2 Sm 13:18) out of grief for the violence
she suffered from her half-brother, Amnon. Amnon sexually
violated and repudiated her (2 Sm 13:15–17), in spite of all
her pleadings. Tamar’s grief was twofold: loss of virginity
and failure on the part of Amnon to compensate her by
marriage (Anderson 1989:175). She tore her robe to show her
anguish. Her action also foreshadowed the disintegration of
the fabric of David’s family after Absalom plotted and took
his revenge (Vamosh 2007:76).
Death of his son, Amnon, was the reason for David tearing
his garments (2 Sm 13:30–31). The death of Amnon had
already taken place. Absalom revenged his sister Tamar
by conspiring against and killing Amnon. However, the news
that David received was a rumour that all his sons were
murdered. He could have all the same torn his garment even
if it were only Amnon that died.
Hushai the Archite tore his garment and mourned the
misfortune of King David his friend (2 Sm 15:32). David had
to flee from his son Absalom and Hushai knew what this
meant for the king. He showed his displeasure at this by
tearing his garments. Torn garments in this text is a sign of
mourning for an unpleasant situation of a loved one.
King Ahab tore his garments (1 Ki 21:27) when he heard the
divine judgements pronounced by Elijah because of the
atrocities committed by the king and his wife Jezebel (1 Ki
21:17–29). The climax of their evil deeds was the killing of
Naboth for selfish interest. Ahab’s gesture of tearing garments
and other accompanying actions were considered as humility
(1 Ki 21:29); therefore, the punishments would not become
effective in his time. Is tearing garments in this context a sign
of humility, or ‘regal self-judgment’ (DeVries 1985:258) or
repentance? (Eileen 1972). It seems all these can be deduced
from what Ahab did besides torn garments: he put on
sackcloth over his bare flesh; he fasted, lay in the sackcloth
and went about dejectedly (1 Ki 21:29). All these are gestures
of a repentant person.
Separation from a close companion, not necessarily the
thought of death, made Elisha tear his garments in two (2 Ki
2:12). Elijah was like a father to him, or so highly respected
that he had to address him with the title ‘father’ (Hobbs
1985), and he was taken away from him. In tearing his
garments, Elisha expresses grief at the separation.
The king of Israel, to whom the Aramean king sent a letter to
help Naaman obtain healing (Ska 2000), was panic-stricken
such that he tore his garments (2 Ki 5:7). He thought that the
king of Aram was trying to pick a quarrel with him (2 Ki 5:7).
Tearing garments was also as a result of a fearful feeling of
imminent danger.
In 2 Kings 6:26–30, the devastating condition generated
by hunger made some people begin to practise cannibalism.
When the king heard about this, he tore his garments because
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of sorrow for the situation of his people. One can tear one’s
garments out of distress for a particularly awful situation.
Queen Athaliah tore her clothes (2 Ki 11:14; 2 Chr 23:13) when
she became aware of the conspiracy against her and the
consequences of such an evil plot. Her fear was not unfounded
for she was eventually killed by those who opposed her. In
this context, tearing clothes was also an expression of an
inner feeling of imminent danger.
Eliakim, Shebna and Joab in 2 Kings 18:37 (Is 36:22) tore their
garments when King of Assyria threatened to destroy
Jerusalem. The looming national catastrophe (Liubov 2014)
made these officials and King Hezekiah tear their garments
(2 Ki 19:1; Is 37:1).
In 2 Kings 22:11 (cf. 2 Chr 34:19), King Josiah tore his garment
when he heard the words of The Book of the Law discovered in
the House of the Lord. He explained the reason for his action
in these words (2 Ki 22):
for great is the wrath of the Lord that is kindled against us,
because our ancestors did not obey the words of this book, to do
according to all that is written concerning us. (v. 13)
In tearing his clothes, he expressed sorrow at the infidelity of
his people and fear of the punishment because of their sin.
Hobbs (1985:326) reveals that Josiah’s move was also a
gesture of despair, anger and of repentance.
Eighty men from Shechem and Shiloh and Samaria who tore
their garments (Jr 41:5) after the destruction of Jerusalem and
the murder of Gedaliah who was appointed the governor in
Israel by the king of Babylon meant to mourn their leader
and also mourn for the destruction of Jerusalem (McKane
1996). It was a mourning gesture for the devastation their
nation was experiencing.
When all his children died and he also lost all his possessions,
Job expressed his mental agony by tearing his garments
(Job 1:20). Similarly, his three friends – Eliphaz, Bildad, and
Zophar – did the same (Job 2:12) when they came to condole
with him and observed that his body was full of sores.
Tearing clothes can be an expression of empathy for another
person’s pitiable condition.
Mordecai tore his garments (Es 4:1) when there was a
conspiracy to exterminate the Jews. His love and devotion to
the welfare of his people moved him to some actions which
tearing his garments symbolically initiated.
The unfaithfulness of his people made Ezra rend his garments
and mantle (Ez 9:5). He was highly dramatic and the action
could have been so planned in order to attract public attention
to his protest (Blenkinsopp 1989) and to incite the people to
repentance.
In Judith 14:16, Bagoas, an official at the Babylonian palace,
and leaders of the army (Jth 14:19) tore their garments on
discovering the death of Holofernes, who was beheaded in
his house. Horror and fear of the sight, as well as the
consequences of the dead of their leader, made them tear their
garments. They tore their garments as they mourned for him.
Mattathias and his sons tore their garments (1 Macc 2:14)
because of blasphemies being committed in Judah and
Jerusalem (1 Macc 2:6). Their patriotism made them
express their displeasure at the happenings. Tearing their
clothes appears an outward manifestation of their grief and
lamentation.
In 1 Maccabees 3:47, Judas who was called Maccabeus and
his brothers tore their garments as part of their spiritual
preparation for battle. This gives us further insight into the
significance of tearing clothes in the biblical world.
Judas and his brothers expressed their grief by tearing their
garments (1 Macc 4:39) when the temple was profaned by
infidels. They mourned for the desecration of the holy
place which was the focus of their life and relationship
with God. Tearing their clothes was for them a way of
expressing their agony.
When deserted by the men with him in his military campaign,
Jonathan tore his garments (1 Macc 11:71) as a sign of distress
for their action (McEleney 1992). He prayed and tore his
garments. Unpleasant life situation can induce one to rend
one’s garments.
In 1 Maccabees 13:45, all the inhabitants (men, women and
children) of a gentile city, Gazara, tore their garments before
the victorious Hasmonean Simon who was about to besiege
their city. Fear and horror provoked their actions.
Types of garments
It is observed that there are various types of garments
involved in the practice of tearing clothes in the OT. The most
common garment mentioned is beged employed frequently in
the plural form, b
e
gādîm. It is in the plural because this word
is a generic term for clothing; the plural form could refer to
all other clothing together. This means that not just one
garment is torn. The only exception is in Ezra 9:5 where the
singular form is used; Ezra tore his beged and another called
m
e
‘îl. This implies that he tore two different types of the
garment which he was wearing, perhaps to show the depth
of his distress. Apart from Ezra 9:5, m
e
‘îl occurs again in Job
1:20; 2:12. In these texts, it is construed in the singular form.
As m
e
‘îl is a special type of clothing, a mantle worn by
distinguished persons; it can only be one at a time. Another
type of clothing is śimlāh occurring only in Genesis 37:34;
44:12–13; Joshua 7:1–6, and always in the plural form, perhaps
because it is also a generic term for clothing. A garment called
mad appears just once and in plural (cf. 1 Sm 4:12); it was torn
by a man of the tribe of Benjamin who came from the
battlefield, bringing news of the massive defeat of the
Israelites by the Philistines. Mad could be used because it is a
term associated with battle; in fact, ‘it refers to battle dress’
(Fabry 1997). Tamar’s royal robe which she tore (2 Sm 13:19)
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out of distress is called k
e
tōnet happassim. It occurs only here
in the OT practice of tearing clothes. A simple kuttōnet ‘tunic’
occurs in the singular form in 2 Samuel 15:32 and in the Greek
(χιτών) of Judith 14:19.
Beged, which is a common OT term for garment or clothing,
can occur in both singular and plural forms. In all its
occurrences in tearing clothes, except once in Ezra 9:5, the
plural form is always used. It has been observed above that
Ezra also had his royal mantle, that is to say that he had two
different types. The plural use in tearing clothes most
probably indicates that the individual tore more than one
type of clothing. A similar explanation can also be given to
another common word for clothing in OT, śimlāh which
occurs in plural form in the practice of tearing garments.
Specific garments like m
e
‘îl and kuttōnet are in singular and
just that was torn and no other.
The verb of acon in tearing clothes
With the exception of Leviticus 10:1–7 that uses the verbal
root םר ‘to tear clothes into pieces’, the OT is consistent in
using the root ערק ‘tear, rend’, in the qal for the action of
tearing clothes. This Hebrew root is associated with the
ritual of tearing of clothes in the OT (Thiel 2004). Very little
is known in the OT on how the garments were torn. It is
only in 2 Kings 2:12 that Elisha tore his garment into two.
A certain study of the verb of action, ערק, offers this
observation: ‘an examination of its use shows conclusively
that a violent action of tearing is denoted by it’ (Morris
1900:23). This makes sense if tearing clothes is ‘an
expression of fear, horror, consternation, or dismay over a
calamity that has directly or indirectly affected the person
performing the action, or threatens to do so’ (Thiel
2004:175). It is said of Jacob, for instance, that after tearing
his clothes, he put on sackcloth on his loins (Gn 37:34). This
could mean that his body was indeed exposed by the
tearing of clothes. It is also said of Ahab that he put
sackcloth on his bare flesh. Tearing of clothes must have
been performed in such a way that one was almost naked
and needed another covering.
Other acons performed with the
tearing of clothes
One of the outstanding actions that accompany tearing of
garments is ‘to put on sackcloth’. Sack (śak in Hebrew) is ‘a
rough fabric woven of hair, dark in color, used among other
purposes for grain bags’ (McKenzie 1965:753). It is a poor-
quality material of goat hair which is coarse in nature
(De Vaux 1994). Its texture and color must have made it
both uncomfortable to the skin and unpleasant to the sight.
Those who used it as part of the ritual of tearing garments
include: Jacob (Gn 37:34); Ahab put it on and also lay on it
(1 Ki 21:20–27); king of Israel (2 Ki 6:26–30); King Hezekiah
covered himself with sackcloth (2 Ki 19:1); Mordecai (Es 4:1);
Mattathias and his sons (1 Macc 2:4); Judas and his brothers
(1 Macc 3:47). The quality of the material denotes a feeling of
affliction on the part of the mourners.
Another action is ‘to put dust or ashes on one’s head’. Joshua
and the men with him put dust (‘āpār) on their heads as part
of their mourning (Jos 7:6). Others were: a man from Benjamin
(1 Sm 4:12); an Amalekite (2 Sm 1:2); Tamar (2 Sm 13:19);
Hushai the Archite (1 Sm 15:32); friends of Job (Job 1:12);
Mordecai (Es 4:1); Judas and his brothers (1 Macc 3:47; 4:39).
Disheveling of one’s hair (cf. Lv 10:1–7; 13:45; 21:10) is also in
this category of disfiguring one’s appearance as a sign of
mourning.
Inflicting corporal punishment on oneself also accompanies
the ritual of tearing clothes. On two occasions, we see
individuals who fasted. David and his officials fasted when
they mourned for Saul and Jonathan (2 Sm 1:11–12). The
second text is 1 Maccabees 3:47 where Judas and his brothers
abstained from food as part of their preparation for battle.
Another form of self-imposed punishment is to gash one’s
body as the 80 men from Shechem, Shiloh and Samaria did
(Jr 41:5). There are also instances where some shaved their
head and beard as a sign of mourning (Jr 41:5; Job 1:20).
Taking postures of prayer and actually praying also go with
tearing garments. Hezekiah went into the house of God with
his torn clothes and prayed to God (2 Ki 19:1). Job fell on the
ground and worshipped God (Job 1:20). Ezra fell on his
knees, spread out his hands to the Lord and prayed (Ez 9:5).
Jonathan prayed when deserted by the men with him in his
military campaign (1 Macc 11:71).
Others cried out or shouted because of their terrifying
situations. Athaliah, for instance, cried out when she noticed
the plan against her (2 Ki 11:14; 2 Chr 23:13). Bagoas and
leaders of the army cried out with a loud voice, wept, groaned
and shouted (Jud 14:16, 19). Inhabitants of Gazara cried out
with a loud voice when their city was in danger.
Towards a synthesis of the pracce
of tearing clothes in the Old
Testament
Garments are a human necessity for covering. They can
be expensive because of the material from which they are
made and because of labour involved in producing them.
A garment signifies the identity of the person who wears it.
In other words, the worth of a person is known for his or her
dress; garment communicates one’s personality. Generally,
garments and act of clothing belong to human sphere, for
animals are not concerned about what to wear and how to
wear it. Garments have some affinities with human respect.
Furthermore, a garment typifies modesty and positive pride
of self.
When one rends one’s clothes, one strips oneself of all these
different aspects of the significance of clothing in human life.
There seems to be a voluntary and spontaneous self-
humiliation associated with tearing one’s garments, and to
some extent dehumanisation. That which is fundamental to
human is adversely affected. When comfortable, expensive
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and fine clothing is replaced with coarse and unattractive
sackcloth, the person acts out his or her inner life experience.
There is a kind of transformation from a joyful mood to a
painful state. Tearing one’s garment expresses in a powerful
gesture, which can be violent and spontaneous, a sudden
drastic change.
Only doleful life situations of various types can induce one
into tearing one’s garments. Conspicuous among these is the
real or imagined death of a loved one. It is a separation in this
present world and tearing clothes signifies both the reality of
the separation and the psychological status of the bereaved.
It is a condition of intense distress that does not deserve
comfortable fine garments. Because garments are readily at
hand, the mental agony and anger of the sufferer are vented
on what is very close.
Humiliation and repudiation experienced from others, like in
the case of Tamar (2 Sm 13) and perhaps by Joseph’s brothers
(Gn 44:12–13), are painful and such degrading condition can
be represented by rending garments. Just as humiliation
renders one less human, torn clothing manifests the
frustrating emotion of the person affected.
Fear and horror of imminent danger is also another life
situation that leads to tearing garments. There seems to be in
the torn garments of the sufferer an anticipation of what will
happen. The person experiences or lives in the present
what he strongly believes will befall him. Such inner feeling
must have led Athaliah to tear her garments (2 Ki 11:14). King
Hezekiah and his officials imagined the reality of national
disaster (2 Ki 19:1). The inhabitants of Gazara lived in the
present an imminent danger that would be like violent
dehumanisation (1 Macc 13:45).
Firm and unalloyed adherence to God’s law and promises
denotes life for his faithful (Ps 1; 119). In contrast, deviation
from God’s way is tantamount to a disaster that leads to
death, which begins already in this world with some
corrective measures from God; the faithful shudder at those
who infringe on God’s law. Joshua and Caleb tore their
garments (Nm 14:1–7) in amazement at those who were
unbelieving in God’s promise of the Land. King Josiah
manifested his anger by tearing his garments (2 Ki 22:11)
because the dictates of the law were ignored by his people.
The ritual of tearing clothes by both the king and reconnoitres
denotes the consequence of unbelief on the part of those who
should have had strong faith in God. Josiah articulates it in
these words: ‘for great is the wrath of the Lord that is kindled
against us, because our ancestors did not obey the words of
this book’ (2 Ki 22:13).
Conclusion
The writers of Sacred Scripture were rarely engaged in a
systematic treatise on some ancient customs. Readers have to
scan closely through the texts and the extant extra-biblical
writings in order to understand the nature and the meaning
of such practices. Lack of sufficient information can make the
significance of these ancient customs very elusive. Moreover,
some of the ancient practices are so interwoven that they
make them difficult for modern readers to differentiate one
from the other. Tearing garments in the OT is a case in point
which is the subject of this research. Its use in the OT is so
multifarious for it occurs in varied painful life situations of
those who practised it. Clothing is identified with the person
who wears it. It is also observed that anyone in any kind of
mournful or threatening situation could rend his or her
garments in order to release or forcefully express his or
her strong emotions. Persons in the position of authority
or responsibility feature most in this practice. This can be
attributed to the prevalent projection of leaders in the OT. It
is most likely that common people also tore their garments,
even when they are not recorded in the OT.
The mode of tearing clothes is also not clear in the OT. Besides
Elisha who tore his mantle in two, the writers did not record
how this ritual was carried out. They, however, were very
consistent, with the exception of Leviticus, in using the verb
ערק ‘to rend, tear’, which does not also convey the mode of
rending garments. One thing certain about the practice,
which is sometimes accompanied by other gestures such us
wearing sackcloth and putting ashes on one’s head or
praying, is that it occurred invariably at an unpleasant
moment in a person’s life. Our close reading of the texts
shows that it denotes the rending of the inner being of a
person.
Acknowledgements
Compeng interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests
with regard to the writing of this article.
Authors’ contribuons
O.M.J carried out this research. F.C.U. provided editorial
assistance for the article.
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