Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook: Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

EPA/600/R-18/259F

February 2019

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

National Center for Environmental Assessment

Office of Research and Development

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Washington, DC 20460

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019 Page 3-ii

DISCLAIMER

This document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency policy and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products

does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019 Page 3-iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIS

T OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................................... 3-vi

LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................................................. 3-ix

3. INGESTION OF WATER AND OTHER SELECT LIQUIDS ...................................................................3-1

3.1. INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................................3-1

3.2. RECOMMENDATIONS ...............................................................................................................3-2

3.2.1. Water Ingestion from Consumption of Water as a Beverage and from Food and

Drink ................................................................................................................................3-2

3.2.2. Pregnant and Lactating Women ......................................................................................3-2

3.2.3. Formula-Fed Infants ........................................................................................................3-3

3.2.4. Water Ingestion While Swimming or Diving ..................................................................3-3

3.3. DRINKING WATER INGESTION STUDIES ........................................................................... 3-13

3.3.1. Key Drinking Water Ingestion Study for the General Population ................................. 3-13

3.3.1.1. U.S. EPA Analysis of NHANES 2005−2010 Data ......................................... 3-13

3.3.2. Relevant Drinking Water Ingestion Studies for the General Population ....................... 3-14

3.3.2.1. Wolf (1958)—Body Water Content ................................................................ 3-14

3.3.2.2. National Research Council (1977)―Drinking Water and Health ................... 3-14

3.3.2.3. Pennington (1983)―Revision of the Total Diet Study Food List and

Diets ................................................................................................................ 3-15

3.3.2.4. U.S. EPA (1984)―An Estimation of the Daily Average Food Intake by

Age and Sex for Use in Assessing the Radionuclide Intake of the

General Population .......................................................................................... 3-15

3.3.2.5. Cantor et al. (1987)―Bladder Cancer, Drinking Water Source, and Tap

Water Consumption ......................................................................................... 3-15

3.3.2.6. Ershow and Cantor (1989)—Total Water and Tap Water Intake in the

United States: Population-Based Estimates of Quantities and Sources ........... 3-16

3.3.2.7. Roseberry and Burmaster (1992)―Lognormal Distributions for Water

Intake ............................................................................................................... 3-16

3.3.2.8. Levy et al. (1995)―Infant Fluoride Intake from Drinking Water Added

to Formula, Beverages, and Food .................................................................... 3-17

3.3.2.9. USDA (1995)―Food and Nutrient Intakes by Individuals in the United

States, 1 Day, 1989−1991 ................................................................................ 3-17

3.3.2.10. U.S. EPA (1996)―Descriptive Statistics from a Detailed Analysis of

the National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS) Responses ................ 3-18

3.3.2.11. Heller et al. (2000)―Water Consumption and Nursing Characteristics

of Infants by Race and Ethnicity ..................................................................... 3-18

3.3.2.12. Marshall et al. (2003a)―Patterns of Beverage Consumption during the

Transition Stage of Infant Nutrition ................................................................ 3-19

3.3.2.13. Marshall et al. (2003b)―Relative Validation of a Beverage Frequency

Questionnaire in Children Aged 6 Months through 5 Years Using

3-Day Food and Beverage Diaries ................................................................... 3-20

3.3.2.14. Skinner et al. (2004)―Transition in Infants’ and Toddlers’ Beverage

Patterns ............................................................................................................ 3-20

3.3.2.15. Barraj et al. (2009)―Within-Day Drinking Water Consumption

Patterns: Results from a Drinking Water Consumption Study ........................ 3-20

3.3.2.16. Zizza et al. (2009)―Total Water Intakes of Community-Living

Middle-Old and Oldest-Old Adults ................................................................. 3-21

3.3.2.17. Sebastian et al. (2011)―Drinking Water Intake in the United States;

Rosinger et al. (2016)―Daily Water Intake among U.S. Men and

Women, 2009−2012 ........................................................................................ 3-21

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019 Page 3-iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)

3.3.2.18.

Kahn and Stralka (2009)―Estimated Daily Average per Capita Water

Ingestion by Child and Adult Age Categories Based on USDA’s

1994−1996 and 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by

Individuals and Supplemental Data, Kahn (2008) ........................................... 3-22

3.4. PREGNANT AND LACTATING WOMEN............................................................................... 3-23

3.4.1. Key Study on Pregnant and Lactating Women .............................................................. 3-23

3.4.1.1. EPA Analysis of Consumption Data from 2005−2010 National Health

and Nutrition Examination Survey .................................................................. 3-23

3.4.2. Relevant Studies on Pregnant and Lactating Women .................................................... 3-23

3.4.2.1. Ershow et al. (1991)―Intake of Tap Water and Total Water by

Pregnant and Lactating Women ...................................................................... 3-23

3.4.2.2. Shimokura et al. (1998)―Assessment of Water Use for Estimating

Exposure to Tap Water Contaminants ............................................................. 3-24

3.4.2.3. Zender et al. (2001)―Exposure to Tap Water during Pregnancy ................... 3-24

3.4.2.4. Forssén et al. (2007)―Predictors of Use and Consumption of Public

Drinking Water among Pregnant Women; Forssén et al.

(2009)―Variability and Predictors of Changes in Water Use during

Pregnancy ........................................................................................................ 3-24

3.4.2.5. Kahn and Stralka (2008)―Estimates of Water Ingestion for Women in

Pregnant, Lactating, and Nonpregnant and Nonlactating Child-Bearing

Age Groups Based on USDA’s 1994−1996, 1998 CSFII ............................... 3-25

3.5. FORMULA-FED INFANTS ....................................................................................................... 3-25

3.5.1. Key Study on Formula-Fed Infants ............................................................................... 3-25

3.5.1.1. Kahn et al. (2013)―Estimates of Water Ingestion in Formula by

Infants and Children Based on USDA’s 1994−1996 and 1998

Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals ......................................... 3-25

3.5.2. Relevant Studies on Formula-Fed Infants ..................................................................... 3-25

3.5.2.1. Hilbig et al. (2002)―Measured Consumption of Tap Water in German

Infants and Young Children as Background for Potential Health Risk

Assessment: Data of the DONALD Study ...................................................... 3-26

3.5.2.2. Levallois et al. (2008)―Drinking Water Intake by Infants Living in

Rural Quebec (Canada) ................................................................................... 3-26

3.5.2.3. Schier et al. (2010)―Perchlorate Exposure from Infant Formula and

Comparisons with the Perchlorate Reference Dose ......................................... 3-26

3.6. HIGH ACTIVITY LEVELS/HOT CLIMATES .......................................................................... 3-27

3.6.1. Relevant Studies on High Activity Levels/Hot Climates .............................................. 3-27

3.6.1.1. McNall and Schlegel (1968)―Practical Thermal Environmental Limits

for Young Adult Males Working in Hot, Humid Environments ..................... 3-27

3.6.1.2. U.S. Army (1983, 1999)―Water Consumption Planning Factors .................. 3-27

3.6.1.3. Sohn et al. (2001)―Fluid Consumption Related to Climate among

Children in the United States ........................................................................... 3-28

3.6.1.4. Kant et al. (2009)―Intakes of Plain Water, Moisture in Foods and

Beverages, and Total Water in the Adult U.S. Population―Nutritional,

Meal Pattern, and Body Weight Correlates: NHANES 1999−2006;

Kant and Graubard (2010)―Contributors of Water Intake in U.S.

Children and Adolescents: Associations with Dietary and Meal

Characteristics―National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

2005−2006 ....................................................................................................... 3-28

3.6.1.5. Yang and Chun (2014)―Consumptions of Plain Water, Moisture in

Foods and Beverages, and Total Water in Relation to Dietary

Micronutrient Intakes and Serum Nutrient Profiles among U.S. Adults ......... 3-29

3.6.1.6. Montain and Ely (2010)―Water Requirements and Soldier Hydration .......... 3-29

3.7. WATER INGESTION WHILE SWIMMING AND DIVING .................................................... 3-30

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019 Page 3-v

TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)

3.7.1.

Key Studies on Water Ingestion While Swimming ....................................................... 3-30

3.7.1.1. Dufour et al. (2006)―Water Ingestion during Swimming Activities in a

Pool: A Pilot Study; Dufour et al. (2017)―Ingestion of Swimming

Pool Water by Recreational Swimmers ........................................................... 3-30

3.7.2. Relevant Studies on Water Ingestion While Swimming, Diving, or Engaging in

Recreational Water Activities ........................................................................................ 3-31

3.7.2.1. Schijven and de Roda Husman (2006)―A Survey of Diving Behavior

and Accidental Occupational and Sport Divers to Assess the Risk of

Infection with Waterborne Pathogenic Microorganisms ................................. 3-31

3.7.2.2. Schets et al. (2011)―Exposure Assessment for Swimmers in Bathing

Waters and Swimming Pools ........................................................................... 3-31

3.7.2.3. Dorevitch et al. (2011)―Water Ingestion during Water Recreation ............... 3-32

3.7.2.4. Suppes et al. (2014)―Assessment of Swimmers Behaviors on Pool

Water Ingestion ............................................................................................... 3-32

3.7.2.5. Sinclair et al. (2016a)―Variability in 24-Hour Excretion of Cyanuric

Acid: Implications for Water Exposure Assessment ....................................... 3-33

3.7.2.6. DeFlorio-Barker et al. (2017)―Child Environmental Exposures to

Water and Sand at the Beach: Findings from Studies of Over 68,000

Subjects at 12 Beaches .................................................................................... 3-33

3.8. OTHER INADVERTENT WATER INGESTION ...................................................................... 3-33

3.8.1. Sinclair et al. (2016b)―Measuring Water Ingestion from Spray Exposures ................ 3-33

3.9. REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 3 .............................................................................................. 3-34

APPENDIX A ........................................................................................................................................................ A-1

APPENDIX B ........................................................................................................................................................ B-1

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019 Page 3-vi

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3-1. Recommended Values for Drinking Water Ingestion Rates ..........................................................3-4

Table 3-2. Confidence in Recommendations for Drinking Water Ingestion Rates .........................................3-6

Table 3-3. Recommended Values for Water Ingestion Rates of Community Water for Pregnant and

Lactating Women, and Women of Child-bearing Age ...................................................................3-7

Table 3-4. Confidence in Recommendations for Water Ingestion for Pregnant/Lactating Women ................3-8

Table 3-5. Recommended Values for Water Ingestion Rates of Community Water for Formula-Fed

Infants ............................................................................................................................................3-9

Table 3-6. Confidence in Recommendations for Water Ingestion for Formula-Fed Infants ......................... 3-10

Table 3-7. Recommended Values for Water Ingestion While Swimming .................................................... 3-11

Table 3-8. Confidence in Recommendations for Water Ingestion While Swimming ................................... 3-12

Table 3-9. Two-Day Average per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion

Based on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010:

Community Water ........................................................................................................................ 3-38

Table 3-10. Two-Day Average per Capita Estimates of Direct Water Ingestion Based on National

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Bottled Water .................... 3-40

Table 3-11. Two-Day Average per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion

Based on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010:

Other Sources ............................................................................................................................... 3-42

Table 3-12. Two-Day Average per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion

Based on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: All

Sources ......................................................................................................................................... 3-44

Table 3-13. Two-Day Average per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion

Based on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010:

Community Water ........................................................................................................................ 3-46

Table 3-14. Two-Day Average per Capita Estimates of Direct Water Ingestion Based on National

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Bottled .............................. 3-48

Table 3-15. Two-Day Average per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion

Based on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010:

Other Sources ............................................................................................................................... 3-50

Table 3-16. Two-Day Average per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion

Based on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: All

Sources ......................................................................................................................................... 3-52

Table 3-17. Two-Day Average Consumer-Only Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water

Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)

2005−2010: Community Water .................................................................................................... 3-54

Table 3-18. Two-Day Average Consumer-Only Estimates of Direct Water Ingestion Based on

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Bottled

Water ............................................................................................................................................ 3-56

Table 3-19. Two-Day Average Consumer-Only Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water

Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)

2005−2010: Other Sources ........................................................................................................... 3-58

Table 3-20. Two-Day Average Consumer-Only Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water

Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)

2005−2010: All Sources ............................................................................................................... 3-60

Table 3-21. Two-Day Average Consumer-Only Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water

Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)

2005−2010: Community Water .................................................................................................... 3-62

Table 3-22. Two-Day Average Consumer-Only Estimates of Direct Water Ingestion Based on

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Bottled

Water ............................................................................................................................................ 3-64

Table 3-23. Two-Day Average Consumer-Only Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water

Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)

2005−2010: Other Sources ........................................................................................................... 3-66

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019 Page 3-vii

LIST OF TABLES (CONTINUED)

Table 3-24. Two-Day Average Consumer-Only Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water

Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)

2005−2010: All Sources ............................................................................................................... 3-68

Table 3-25. Intake Rates of Total Fluids and Total Tap Water by Age Group ............................................... 3-70

Table 3-26. Mean and Standard Error (SE) for the Daily Intake of Beverages and Tap Water by Age .......... 3-70

Table 3-27. Average Total Tap Water Intake Rate by Sex, Age, and Geographic Area ................................. 3-71

Table 3-28. Frequency Distribution of Total Tap Water Intake Rates ............................................................ 3-71

Table 3-29. Total Tap Water Intake (mL/day) for Both Sexes Combined ...................................................... 3-72

Table 3-30. Total Tap Water Intake (mL/kg-day) for Both Sexes Combined ................................................. 3-73

Table 3-31. Total Tap Water Intake (as % of total water intake) by Broad Age Category ............................. 3-74

Table 3-32. General Dietary Sources of Tap Water for Both Sexes ................................................................ 3-74

Table 3-33. Summary Statistics for Best-Fit Lognormal Distributions for Water Intake Rates ...................... 3-75

Table 3-34. Estimated Quantiles and Means for Total Tap Water Intake Rates ............................................. 3-76

Table 3-35. Water Ingested (mL/day) from Water by Itself and Water Added to Other Beverages and

Foods ............................................................................................................................................ 3-77

Table 3-36. Mean per Capita Drinking Water Intake Based on U.S. Department of Agriculture

(USDA), Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII) Data from

1989−1991 ................................................................................................................................... 3-79

Table 3-37. Number of Respondents Who Consumed Tap Water at a Specified Daily Frequency ................ 3-80

Table 3-38. Number of Respondents Who Consumed Juice Reconstituted with Tap Water at a

Specified Daily Frequency ........................................................................................................... 3-81

Table 3-39. Mean and (standard error [SE]) Water and Drink Consumption (mL/kg-day) by

Race/Ethnicity .............................................................................................................................. 3-83

Table 3-40. Plain Tap Water and Total Water Consumption by Age, Sex, Region, Urbanicity, and

Poverty Category ......................................................................................................................... 3-84

Table 3-41. Percentage of Subjects Consuming Beverages and Mean Daily Beverage Intakes

(mL/day) for Children with Returned Questionnaires ................................................................. 3-85

Table 3-42. Mean (± standard deviation [SD]) Daily Beverage Intakes Reported on Beverage

Frequency Questionnaire and 3-Day Food and Beverage Diaries ............................................... 3-87

Table 3-43. Consumption of Beverages by Infants and Toddlers ................................................................... 3-88

Table 3-44. Number of Drinking Water Events Per Day, Intake Per Event (mL/event), and Daily

Intake ........................................................................................................................................... 3-89

Table 3-45. Mean (standard error [SE]) Total Daily Water Intake for Older Adults ...................................... 3-90

Table 3-46. Per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on

1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Community

Water ............................................................................................................................................ 3-90

Table 3-47. Per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on

1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Bottled

Water ............................................................................................................................................ 3-91

Table 3-48. Per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on

1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Other

Sources ......................................................................................................................................... 3-92

Table 3-49. Per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on

1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): All Sources ........ 3-93

Table 3-50. Per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

b

Water Ingestion Based on

1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Community

Water ............................................................................................................................................ 3-94

Table 3-51. Per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on

1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Bottled

Water ............................................................................................................................................ 3-95

Table 3-52. Per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on

1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Other

Sources ......................................................................................................................................... 3-96

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019 Page 3-viii

LIST OF TABLES (CONTINUED)

Table 3-53. Per Capita Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on

1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): All Sources ....... 3-97

Table 3-54. Consumers-Only Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on

1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Community

Water ............................................................................................................................................ 3-98

Table 3-55. Consumers-Only Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on

1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Bottled

Water ............................................................................................................................................ 3-99

Table 3-56. Consumers-Only Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on

1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Other

Sources ....................................................................................................................................... 3-100

Table 3-57. Consumers-Only Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on

1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): All Sources ...... 3-101

Table 3-58. Consumers-Only Estimates of Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on 1994−1996,

1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Community Water ............... 3-102

Table 3-59. Consumers-Only Estimates of Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on 1994−1996,

1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Bottled Water ...................... 3-103

Table 3-60. Consumers-Only Estimates of Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on 1994−1996,

1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Other Sources ...................... 3-104

Table 3-61. Consumers-Only Estimates of Direct and Indirect Water Ingestion Based on 1994−1996,

1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): All Sources .......................... 3-105

Table 3-62. Two-Day Average per Capita Drinking Water Intake: Pregnant and Lactating Women,

and Women of Child-Bearing Age............................................................................................. 3-106

Table 3-63. Two-Day Average Consumer-Only Drinking Water Intake: Pregnant and Lactating

Women, and Women of Child-Bearing Age .............................................................................. 3-108

Table 3-64. Total Fluid Intake of Women 15 to 49 Years Old ...................................................................... 3-110

Table 3-65. Total Tap Water Intake of Women 15 to 49 Years Old ............................................................. 3-110

Table 3-66. Total Fluid (mL/Day) Derived from Various Dietary Sources by Women Aged 15 to 49

Years .......................................................................................................................................... 3-111

Table 3-67. Daily Water Intake for Men and Pregnant Women .................................................................... 3-111

Table 3-68. Average Daily Tap Water Consumption (L/day) by Location, Temperature, and Beverage

Type ........................................................................................................................................... 3-112

Table 3-69. Water Ingestion Rates by Pregnancy Status (L/day) and Source Location ................................ 3-113

Table 3-70. Principal Sources of Drinking Water at Home for Pregnant and Nonpregnant Women ............ 3-114

Table 3-71. Total Tap Water and Bottled Water Intake by Pregnant Women ............................................... 3-115

Table 3-72. Percentage of Mean Water Intake Consumed as Unfiltered and Filtered Tap Water by

Pregnant Women ........................................................................................................................ 3-118

Table 3-73. Intake Rates at Different Times During Pregnancy ................................................................... 3-120

Table 3-74. Frequency and Proportion of Women Reporting Changes in Water Intake between Early

and Mid-Pregnancy .................................................................................................................... 3-121

Table 3-75. Per Capita Estimates of Direct and Indirect Water Intake from All Sources by Pregnant,

Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women ................................................................................ 3-122

Table 3-76. Per Capita Estimates of Direct and Indirect Water Intake from All Sources by Pregnant,

Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women ................................................................................ 3-122

Table 3-77. Per Capita Estimated Direct and Indirect Community Water Ingestion by Pregnant,

Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women ................................................................................ 3-123

Table 3-78. Per Capita Estimated Direct and Indirect Community Water Ingestion by Pregnant,

Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women ................................................................................ 3-123

Table 3-79. Consumers-Only Estimated Direct and Indirect Water Intake from All Sources by

Pregnant, Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women ................................................................ 3-124

Table 3-80. Consumers-Only Direct and Indirect Water Intake from All Sources by Pregnant,

Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women ................................................................................ 3-124

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019 Page 3-ix

LIST OF TABLES (CONTINUED)

Table 3-81. Consumers-Only Estimated Direct and Indirect Community Water Ingestion by Pregnant,

Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women ................................................................................ 3-125

Table 3-82. Consumers-Only Estimated Direct and Indirect Community Water Ingestion by Pregnant,

Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women ................................................................................ 3-125

Table 3-83. Mean and 95

th

Percentile Community Water Intake among Formula-Fed Infants ..................... 3-126

Table 3-84. Tap Water Intake in Breast-Fed and Formula-Fed Infants and Mixed-Fed Young Children

at Different Age Points .............................................................................................................. 3-127

Table 3-85. Water Intake for 2-Month-Old Infants ....................................................................................... 3-129

Table 3-86. Water Intake at Various Activity Levels .................................................................................... 3-130

Table 3-87. Planning Factors for Individual Tap Water Consumption ......................................................... 3-130

Table 3-88. Mean (± standard error [SE]) Fluid Intake (mL/kg-day) by Children Aged 1 to 10 Years,

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) III, 1988−1994 ...................... 3-131

Table 3-89. Estimated Mean (± standard error [SE]) Amount of Total Fluid and Plain Water Intake

among Children Aged 1 to 10 Years by Age, Sex, Race/Ethnicity, Poverty:Income Ratio,

Region, and Urbanicity .............................................................................................................. 3-132

Table 3-90. Daily Water Intake Based on Physical Activity Levels, Mean ± Standard Error (SE) g/day ..... 3-134

Table 3-91. Pool Water Ingestion by Swimmers ........................................................................................... 3-135

Table 3-92. Swimming Pool Water Ingestion Rates (mL/hour) by Swimmer Groups .................................. 3-135

Table 3-93. Water Ingested while Swimming ............................................................................................... 3-135

Table 3-94. Arithmetic Mean (maximum) Number of Dives per Diver and Volume of Water Ingested ...... 3-136

Table 3-95. Exposure Parameters for Swimmers in Swimming Pools, Fresh Water, and Seawater ............. 3-137

Table 3-96. Estimated Water Ingestion during Water Recreation Activities ................................................ 3-137

Table 3-97. Pool Water Ingestion (mL/hr) by Activity and Age Group among Videotaped Participants ..... 3-138

Table 3-98. Estimated Volume of Water Ingested per Swimming Event ...................................................... 3-138

Table A-1. Comparison of Community Water Intake Estimates 1994−1998 Continuing Survey of

Food Intake by Individuals (CFSII), National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

(NHANES) 2003−2006, and NHANES 2005−2010 ..................................................................... A-1

Table A-2. Comparison of Bottled Water Intake Estimates

1994−1998 Continuing Survey of Food

Intake by Individuals (CFSII), National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

(NHANES) 2003−2006, and NHANES 2005−2010 ..................................................................... A-3

Table A-3. Comparison of Other Sources of Water Intake Estimates 1994−1998 Continuing Survey

of Food Intake by Individuals (CFSII), National Health and Nutrition Examination

Survey (NHANES) 2003−2006, and NHANES 2005−2010 ........................................................ A-5

Table A-4. Comparison of All Sources of Water Intake Estimates 1994−1998 Continuing Survey of

Food Intake by Individuals (CFSII), National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

(NHANES) 2003−2006, and NHANES 2005−2010 ..................................................................... A-7

Table B-1. Terms Used in Literature Searches ............................................................................................... B-1

LIS

T OF FIGURES

Figure A-1. Comparison of mean per capita water ingestion (mL/day), all ages: Continuing Survey of

Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII) 1994−1996, 1998; National Health and Nutrition

Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003−2006, and NHANES 2005−2010. .................................. A-9

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019 Page 3-1

3. INGESTION OF WATER AND OTHER

SELECT LIQUIDS

3.1. INTRODUCTION

This document is an update to Chapter 3 (Ingestion

of Water and Selected Liquids) of the Exposure

Factors Handbook; 2011 Edition (U.S. EPA, 2011).

New information that has become available since 2011

has been added, and the recommended values have

been revised as needed to reflect the additional

information. The recommended values for the general

population in this chapter have been updated using

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

(NHANES) data for 2005−2010; the 2011 version of

this chapter used NHANES data for 2003−2006 for

individuals ≥3 years of age and Continuing Survey of

Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII) data for 1994-

1996, and 1998 for children <3 years of age. Appendix

A provides a comparison of the intake rates based on

NHANES 2005-2010 data to those based on NHANES

2003-2006 and CSFII 1994-96 and 1998. Data for

pregnant and lactating women have also been updated

using NHANES 2005-2010 data. This update also

provides, for the first time, water intake data for

formula-fed infants. Recent relevant studies based on

data other than NHANES and CSFII are also

summarized to provide additional perspective on

drinking water intake.

The chapter includes a comprehensive review of

the scientific literature through 2017. The new

literature was identified via formal literature searches

conducted by EPA library services as well as targeted

internet searches conducted by the authors of this

chapter. Appendix B provides a list of the key terms

that were used in the literature searches. Revisions to

this chapter have been made in accordance with the

approved quality assurance plan for the Exposure

Factors Handbook.

Water ingestion is a pathway of exposure to

environmental chemicals. Contamination of water

may occur at the water supply source (groundwater or

surface water); during treatment (for example, toxic

by-products may be formed during chlorination); or

post-treatment (such as leaching of lead or other

materials from plumbing systems). People may be

exposed to contaminants in water when consuming

water directly as a beverage, indirectly from foods and

drinks made with water, or incidentally while

swimming or engaging in other water-related

activities. Estimating the magnitude of the potential

dose of toxics from water ingestion requires

information on the quantity of water consumed. The

purpose of this section is to describe key and relevant

published studies that provide information on water

ingestion for various populations and to provide

recommended ingestion rate values for use in exposure

assessments. As described in Chapter 1 of the

Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition

(U.S. EPA, 2011), key studies represent those studies

that are the most up-to-date and scientifically sound

for deriving recommendations for exposure factors,

whereas other studies are designated “relevant,”

meaning applicable or pertinent, but not necessarily

the most important. For example, studies that provide

supporting data or information related to the factor of

interest (e.g., number of drinking events per day), or

have study designs or approaches that make the data

less applicable to the population of interest

(e.g., studies not conducted in the United States) have

been designated as relevant rather than key. Key

studies were selected based on the general assessment

factors described in Chapter 1 of the handbook. The

studies described in this section provide information

on ingestion of water consumed as a beverage or in

foods or beverages containing tap water, ingestion of

other select liquids, and ingestion of water while

swimming.

Historically, the Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA) has assumed a drinking water ingestion rate of

2 L/day for adults and 1 L/day for infants and children

under 10 years of age (U.S. EPA, 2000a). This rate

includes water consumed in the form of juices and

other beverages containing tap water. The National

Research Council (NRC, 1977) estimated that daily

consumption of water may vary with levels of physical

activity and fluctuations in temperature and humidity.

It is reasonable to assume that people engaging in

physically demanding activities or living in warmer

regions may have higher levels of water ingestion.

However, there is limited information on the effects of

activity level and climatic conditions on water

ingestion.

U.S. EPA’s analysis of 2005−2010 data from the

NHANES was selected as the key study of drinking

water ingestion for the general population and for

pregnant and lactating women. NHANES 2005−2010

contains the most up-to-date information on water

intake rate estimates. Kahn et al. (2013) was selected

as a key study for formula-fed infants. Kahn et al.

(2013) used data from U.S. Department of

Agriculture’s (USDA’s) 1994−1996, 1998 CSFII.

The U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES data and the

analyses of CSFII data by Kahn et al. (2013) generated

ingestion rates for direct and indirect ingestion of

water. Direct ingestion is defined as direct

consumption of water as a beverage, while indirect

ingestion includes water added during food or

beverage preparation, but not water intrinsic to

purchased foods (i.e., water that is naturally contained

in foods) (Kahn and Stralka, 2008). Data for

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019 Page 3-2

consumption of water from various sources (i.e., the

community water supply, bottled water, and other

sources) are also presented. It is noted that the type of

water people drink has changed in the last decade, as

evidenced by the increase in bottled water

consumption (see Appendix A). However, the

majority of the U.S. population consumes water from

public (i.e., community) water distribution systems;

about 15% of the U.S. population obtains their water

from private (i.e., household) wells, cisterns, or

springs (U.S. EPA, 2002;

https://www.epa.gov/privatewells/about-private-

water-wells). Regardless of the source of the water, the

physiological need for water should be the same

among populations using community or private water

systems. For the purposes of exposure assessments

involving site-specific contaminated drinking water,

ingestion rates based on the community supply are

most appropriate. Given the assumption that bottled

water, and purchased foods and beverages that contain

water are widely distributed and less likely to contain

source-specific water, the use of total water ingestion

rates may overestimate the potential exposure to toxic

substances present only in local water supplies;

therefore, tap water ingestion of community water,

rather than total water ingestion, is emphasized in this

section.

The key studies on water ingestion for the general

population and pregnant and lactating women

(NHANES), and the populations of formula-fed

infants (CSFII) are based on short-term survey data

(2 days). Although short-term data may be suitable for

obtaining mean or median ingestion values that are

representative of both short- and long-term ingestion

distributions, upper- and lower-percentile values may

be different for short-term and long-term data. Note

too that most currently available water ingestion

surveys are based on respondent recall, which may be

a source of uncertainty in the estimated ingestion rates

because of the subjective nature of this type of survey

technique. Percentile distributions for water ingestion

are presented in this handbook, where sufficient data

are available. Information on ingestion of water based

on climate and activity level, and on incidental

ingestion of water while swimming, is also provided

in this chapter.

Section 3.2 provides the recommendations and

confidence ratings for use in risk assessment for

community water ingestion among the general

population, formula-fed infants, and pregnant and

lactating women, and water ingestion among

swimmers. Section 3.3.1 provides the key studies for

general population water ingestion rates, Section 3.4.1

provides ingestion rates for pregnant and lactating

women, Section 3.5.1 provides ingestion rates for

formula-fed infants, Section 3.7 provides ingestion

rates for swimmers, and Section 3.8 provides data for

other inadvertent water ingestion. For water ingestion

at high activity levels or hot climates, no

recommendations are provided, but Section 3.6

includes relevant studies on this topic. Relevant

studies on all subcategories of water ingestion are also

presented to provide the reader with added perspective

on the current state of knowledge pertaining to

ingestion of water and select liquids.

3.

2. RECOMMENDATIONS

3.2.1. Water Ingestion from Consumption of

Water as a Beverage and from Food and

Drink

The recommended general population water

ingestion rate values for the consumption of water as

a beverage (direct) and from foods and drinks

(indirect) are based on U.S. EPA’s analysis of

NHANES data from 2005−2010. Table 3-1 presents a

summary of the recommended values for direct and

indirect ingestion of community water. Per capita

mean and 95

th

percentile values range from

145 mL/day to 956 mL/day and 565 mL/day to

2,976 mL/day, respectively, depending on the age

group. Consumer-only mean and 95

th

percentile values

range from 245 mL/day to 1,419 mL/day and

658 mL/day to 3,407 mL/day, respectively, depending

on the age group. Per capita intake rates represent

intake that has been averaged over the entire

population (including those individuals that reported

no intake). In general, per capita intake rates are

appropriate for use in exposure assessments for which

average daily dose estimates are of interest because

they represent both individuals who drank water

during the survey period and individuals who may

drink water at some time but did not consume it during

the survey period. Consumer-only intake rates

represent the quantity of water consumed only by

individuals who reported water intake during the

survey period. Table 3-2 presents a characterization of

the overall confidence in the accuracy and

appropriateness of the recommendations for drinking

water intake for use in risk assessments.

3.

2.2. Pregnant and Lactating Women

Based upon the results of the U.S. EPA analysis of

2005−2010 NHANES data, per capita mean and 95

th

percentile values for ingestion of drinking water

among pregnant women were 731 mL/day and

2,859 mL/day, respectively. The per capita mean and

95

th

percentile values for lactating women were

1,075 mL/day and 3,061 mL/day, respectively.

Table 3-3 presents a summary of the recommended

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019 Page 3-3

values for water ingestion rates. Table 3-4 presents the

confidence ratings for these recommendations.

3.

2.3. Formula-Fed Infants

The recommended values for drinking water

ingestion rates for formula-fed infants are based on the

results of Kahn et al. (2013). The mean total direct and

indirect water intake values are 505, 627, 699, 691,

and 591 mL/day for ages <1 month, 1 to <3 months,

3 to <6 months, 6 to <12 months, and 1 to <2 years,

respectively. The 95

th

percentile total direct and

indirect water intake values are 858, 1,096, 1,300,

1,350, and 1,254 for ages <1 month, 1 to <3 months,

3 to <6 months, 6 to <12 months, and 1 to <2 years,

respectively. Table 3-5 presents a summary of the

recommended values for formula-fed infants, and

Table 3-6 presents the confidence ratings for the

recommended values for formula-fed infants.

3.

2.4. Water Ingestion While Swimming or

Diving

Based on the data from Dufour (2017), mean

swimming pool water ingestion rates were 38, 44, 33,

and 28 mL/hour for ages 6 to <11, 11 to <16, 16 to

<21, and 21+ years, respectively. Upper percentile

(95

th

percentile) swimming pool water ingestion rates

were 96, 152, 105, and 92 mL/hour for ages 6 to <11,

11 to <16, 16 to <21, and 21+ years, respectively.

Although these estimates were derived from

swimming pool experiments, Dufour et al. (2006)

noted that swimming behavior of recreational pool

swimmers may be similar to freshwater swimmers.

Estimates may be different for saltwater swimmers

and competitive swimmers. Table 3-7 presents a

summary of the recommended values for water

ingestion rates while swimming. Table 3-8 presents

the confidence ratings for these recommendations.

Data on the amount of time spent swimming can be

found in Chapter 16 (see Table 16-1) of this handbook.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

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Table 3-1. Recommended Values for Drinking Water Ingestion Rates (2-day average

community water intake)

a

Age Group

Mean

95

th

Percentile

Multiple Percentiles

mL/day

mL/kg-day

mL/day

mL/kg-day

Per Capita

b

Birth to <1 month

1 to <3 months

3 to <6 months

6 to <12 months

Birth to <1 year

1 to <2 years

2 to <3 years

3 to <6 years

6 to <11 years

11 to <16 years

16 to <21 years

21 to <30 years

30 to <40 years

40 to <50 years

50 to <60 years

60 to <70 years

70 to <80 years

80+ years

21 to <50 years

50+ years

All ages

184

145

187

269

220

146

205

208

294

315

436

781

902

880

956

941

772

784

858

902

711

42

25

27

30

29

13

15

11

10

6

10

11

12

10

11

851

c

905

c

981

c

988

974

565

778

741

1,071

1,395

1,900

2,848

2,967

2,964

2,976

2,972

2,273

2,122

2,938

2,827

2,641

200

c

164

c

141

c

112

137

51

58

42

34

26

28

39

38

37

35

31

30

38

35

37

See Tables 3-9 and 3-13

Consumers-Only

d

Birth to <1 month

1 to <3 months

3 to <6 months

6 to <12 months

Birth to <1 year

1 to <2 years

2 to <3 years

3 to <6 years

6 to <11 years

11 to <16 years

16 to <21 years

21 to <30 years

30 to <40 years

40 to <50 years

50 to <60 years

60 to <70 years

70 to <80 years

80+ years

21 to <50 years

50+ years

All ages

581

785

649

554

595

245

332

338

455

562

722

1,183

1,277

1,356

1,419

1,394

1,214

1,087

1,277

1,343

1,096

133

136

93

62

79

22

24

19

15

10

16

17

18

17

16

17

938

c

1,224

c

1,125

c

1,104

c

1,106

c

658

901

836

1,258

1,761

2,214

3,407

3,278

3,374

3,388

3,187

2,641

2,250

3,353

3,081

2,972

224

c

267

c

158

c

133

c

174

c

57

67

45

41

31

47

44

43

42

40

37

33

44

40

44

See Tables 3-17 and 3-21.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019 Page 3-5

Table 3-1. Recommended Values for Drinking Water Ingestion Rates (2-Day Average

Community Water Intake)

a

(Continued)

Age Group

Mean

95

th

Percentile

Multiple Percentiles

mL/day

mL/kg-day

mL/day

mL/kg-day

Per Capita

b

a

Ingestion rates for combined direct and indirect water from community water supply. Estimates are based on the

average of 2 days of water consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero

consumption on one of the 2 days and nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be

the average of zero and nonzero consumption.

b

Per capita intake rates are generated by averaging consumer-only intakes over the entire population (including those

individuals that reported no intake).

c

Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and

Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III and CSFII Reports: NHIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group

Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).

d

Consumer-only intake represents the quantity of water consumed only by individuals that reported consuming water

during the survey period.

FCID = Food Commodity Intake Database.

NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.

NHIS = National Health Interview Survey.

Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005−2010 data using the FCID Consumption Calculator at http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019 Page 3-6

Table 3-2. Confidence in Recommendations for Drinking Water Ingestion Rates

a

General Assessment Factors

Rationale

Rating

Soundness

Adequacy of Approach

Minimal (or defined) Bias

The survey methodology and data analysis were adequate. The

surveys sampled approximately 25,000 (NHANES) individuals;

sample size varied with age.

No physical measurements were taken. The method relied on recent

recall of standardized volumes of drinking water containers.

Medium to High

Applicability and Utility

Exposure Factor of Interest

Representativeness

Currency

Data Collection Period

The key studies were directly relevant to water ingestion.

The data were demographically representative (based on stratified

random sample). Sample sizes for some age groups were limited.

NHANES data were collected between 2005 and 2010.

Data were collected for 2 nonconsecutive days. However, long-term

variability may be small. Use of a short-term average as a chronic

ingestion measure can be assumed.

High

Clarity and Completeness

Accessibility

Reproducibility

Quality Assurance

NHANES data are publicly available.

The methodology was clearly presented; enough information was

included to reproduce the results.

NHANES data collection follow strict QA/QC procedures. The

FCID Calculator also underwent QA/QC.

High

Variability and Uncertainty

Variability in Population

Uncertainty

Full distributions were developed.

Except for data collection based on recall, sources of uncertainty

were minimal.

High

Evaluation and Review

Peer Review

Number and Agreement of

Studies

NHANES surveys received a high level of peer review. The U.S.

EPA analysis of NHANES has not been peer reviewed outside the

Agency, but the FCID Consumption Calculator, which was used to

conduct the analysis, was internally and externally peer reviewed.

There was one key study for drinking water ingestion among the

general population. Appendix B provides a comparison of the

NHANES 2005−2010 and data sets used previously in the Exposure

Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition (U.S. EPA, 2011) for estimating

water ingestion among the general population (NHANES

2003−2006 and CSFII 1994−1996, 1998).

Medium

Overall Rating

Medium to High,

Low for footnote

“c” on Table 3-1

a

See Section 1.5.2 in Chapter 1 of the Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition (U.S. EPA, 2011) for a detailed

description of the evaluation criteria used in this table.

FCID = Food Commodity Intake Database.

QA/QC = Quality assurance/quality control.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3—Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019 Page 3-7

Table 3-3. Recommended Values for Water Ingestion Rates of Community Water for

Pregnant and Lactating Women, and Women of Child-bearing Age (13 to <50 years)

a

Per Capita

b

Group

Mean

95

th

Percentile

mL/day

mL/kg-day

mL/day

mL/kg-day

Pregnant women

731

9.8

2,859

37.3

Lactating women

1,075

16.5

3,061

c

47.0

Child-bearing age

683

9.8

2,634

38.2

Consumers-Only

d

Group

Mean

95

th

Percentile

mL/day

mL/kg-day

mL/day

mL/kg-day

Pregnant women

1,158

15.5

2,935

c

37.7

Lactating women

1,495

22.9

3,061

c

47.0

Child-bearing age

1,082

15.6

2,956

44.6

a

Ingestion rates for combined direct and indirect water from community water supply. Estimates are based on the

average of 2 days of water consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero

consumption on 1 of the 2

days and nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the

average of zero and nonzero consumption.

b

Per capita intake rates are generated by averaging consumer-only intakes over the entire population (including those

individuals that reported no intake). See Table 3-62.

c

Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and

Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III and CSFII Reports: NHIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group

Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).

d

Consumer-only intake represents the quantity of water consumed only by individuals that reported consuming water

during the survey period. See Table 3-63.

NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.

NHIS = National Health Interview Survey.

Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005−2010 data using the FCID Consumption Calculator at http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019 Page 3-8

Table 3-4. Confidence in Recommendations for Water Ingestion for Pregnant/Lactating

Women

a

General Assessment Factors

Rationale

Rating

Soundness

Adequacy of Approach

Minimal (or defined) Bias

The survey methodology and data analysis were adequate. The sample

size was relatively small: 426 pregnant and 101 lactating women.

No physical measurements were taken. The method relied on recent recall

of standardized volumes of drinking water containers.

Low

Applicability and Utility

Exposure Factor of Interest

Representativeness

Currency

Data Collection Period

The key study was directly relevant to water ingestion.

The data were demographically representative (based on stratified random

sample).

Data were collected between 2005 and 2010.

Data were collected for 2 nonconsecutive days. However, long-term

variability may be small. Use of a short-term average as a chronic

ingestion measure can be assumed.

Low to

Medium

Clarity and Completeness

Accessibility

Reproducibility

Quality Assurance

The NHANES data are publicly available.

The methodology was clearly presented; enough information was included

to reproduce the results.

NHANES data collection follow strict QA/QC procedures. The FCID

Consumption Calculator also underwent QA/QC.

Medium

Variability and Uncertainty

Variability in Population

Uncertainty

Full distributions were developed.

Except for data collection based on recall and the relatively small sample

size, sources of uncertainty were minimal.

Low

Evaluation and Review

Peer Review

Number and Agreement of Studies

NHANES surveys received a high level of peer review. The U.S. EPA

analysis of NHANES has not been peer reviewed outside the Agency, but

the FCID Consumption Calculator, which was used to conduct the

analysis was internally and externally peer reviewed.

There was one key study for pregnant/lactating women water ingestion.

Medium

Overall Rating

Low

a

See Section 1.5.2 in Chapter 1 of the Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition (U.S. EPA, 2011) for a detailed

description of the evaluation criteria used in this table.

FCID = Food Commodity Intake Database.

QA/QC = Quality assurance/quality control.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

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February 2019 Page 3-9

Table 3-5. Recommended Values for Water Ingestion Rates of Community Water for

Formula-Fed Infants

a

Indirect in Formula

b

Group

Mean

95

th

Percentile

mL/day

mL/kg-day

mL/day

mL/kg-day

<1 month

1 to <3 months

3 to <6 months

6 to <12 months

1 to <2 years

491

c

572

645

573

364

143

c

124

93

65

38

c

856

c

963

c

1,112

c

1,192

c

745

c

240

c

285

c

171

c

136

c

82

c

Total Direct and Indirect

d

Group

Mean

95

th

Percentile

mL/day

mL/kg-day

mL/day

mL/kg-day

<1 month

1 to <3 months

3 to <6 months

6 to <12 months

1 to <2 years

505

c

627

699

691

591

146

c

136

101

78

60

858

c

1,096

c

1,300

c

1,350

c

1,254

c

240

c

290

c

186

c

151

c

119

c

a

Formula-consumers only; see Table 3-83.

b

Water used to reconstitute formula.

c

The sample size does not meet the minimum reporting requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition

Monitoring in the United States (LSRO, 1995).

d

Ingestion rates for combined direct and indirect water from community water supply; includes water used to

reconstitute formula plus all other community water ingested.

Source: Kahn et al. (2013).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019 Page 3-10

Table 3-6. Confidence in Recommendations for Water Ingestion for Formula-Fed Infants

a

General Assessment Factors

Rationale

Rating

Soundness

Adequacy of Approach

Minimal (or defined) Bias

The survey methodology and data analysis were adequate. Data

were available for approximately 700 formula-fed infants

overall, but the sample sizes were small for some age ranges.

No physical measurements were taken. The method relied on

recent recall of volumes of drinking water used to reconstitute

infant formula.

Medium

Applicability and Utility

Exposure Factor of Interest

Representativeness

Currency

Data Collection Period

The key study was directly relevant to water ingestion.

The data were demographically representative (based on

stratified random sample).

Data were collected between 1994 and 1998.

Data were collected for 2 nonconsecutive days. However,

long-term variability may be small. Use of a short-term average

as a chronic ingestion measure can be assumed.

Medium

Clarity and Completeness

Accessibility

Reproducibility

Quality Assurance

The CSFII data are publicly available. The Kahn et al. (2013)

analysis of the CSFII 1994−1996, 1998 data was published in a

peer-reviewed journal.

The methodology was clearly presented; enough information

was included to reproduce the results.

Quality assurance of the CSFII data was good; quality control

of the secondary data analysis was not well described.

Medium

Variability and Uncertainty

Variability in Population

Uncertainty

Mean and 95

th

percentile values were provided for five age

groups of infants (Kahn et al., 2013).

Except for data collection based on recall, sources of

uncertainty were minimal.

Medium

Evaluation and Review

Peer Review

Number and Agreement of Studies

The USDA CSFII survey received a high level of peer review.

The Kahn et al. (2013) study was published in a peer-reviewed

journal.

There was one key study for formula-fed infants.

Medium

Overall Rating

Medium

a

See Section 1.5.2 in Chapter 1 of the Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition (U.S. EPA, 2011) for a detailed

description of the evaluation criteria used in this table.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

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February 2019 Page 3-11

Table 3-7. Recommended Values for Water

Ingestion While Swimming

Age Group

years

Mean

Upper Percentile

mL/hour

6 to <11

11 to <16

16 to <21

21+

38

44

33

28

96

152

105

92

Source: Dufour (2017); based on data provided to L. Phillips by A. Dufour by

personal communication, 6/21/2017.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019 Page 3-12

Table 3-8. Confidence in Recommendations for Water Ingestion While Swimming

a

General Assessment Factors

Rationale

Rating

Soundness

Adequacy of Approach

Minimal (or defined) Bias

The approach appears to be appropriate given that cyanuric acid (a

tracer used in treated pool water) is not metabolized. The Dufour et al.

(2006, 2017) studies analyzed primary data on water ingestion during

swimming.

Swimmers were asked to swim for approximately 1 hour, but the

swimming durations used in calculating the ingestion rates were based

on self-reported estimates that may not accurately reflect the actual

time spent swimming.

Medium

Applicability and Utility

Exposure Factor of Interest

Representativeness

Currency

Data Collection Period

The key study was directly relevant to water ingestion while

swimming.

The sample was not representative of the U.S. population. Data were

provided for three broad age ranges (i.e., children, teens, adults).

The pilot study (Dufour et al., 2006) was conducted in 2005 and the

full study (Dufour et al., 2017) was conducted after the pilot study.

Samples were collected after a swimming period of approximately

1 hour.

Low to

Medium

Clarity and Completeness

Accessibility

Reproducibility

Quality Assurance

The Dufour et al. (2006, 2017) studies were published in

peer-reviewed journals. Dufour (2017) provided the raw data, which

were analyzed to provide additional percentile values for additional

age groups.

The methodology was clearly presented; enough information was

included to reproduce the results.

Quality assurance methods were not described in the study.

Medium

Variability and Uncertainty

Variability in Population

Uncertainty

Full distributions were not available in the paper, but the data were

provided by the author via personal communications (Dufour, 2017).

Data were broken out by broad age groups.

The sources of uncertainty were that the sample population may not

reflect swimming practices for all swimmers, and the rates were based

on self-reported swimming durations.

Low

Evaluation and Review

Peer Review

Number and Agreement of Studies

The Dufour et al. (2006, 2017) studies were published in peer-reviewed

journals.

There were two key studies for ingestion of water when swimming

(Dufour et al., 2006, 2017).

Medium

a

See Section 1.5.2 in Chapter 1 of the Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition (U.S. EPA, 2011) for a detailed

description of the evaluation criteria used in this table.

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3.3. DRINKING WATER INGESTION

STUDIES

3.3.1. Key Drinking Water Ingestion Study for

the General Population

This section provides a summary of the key study

on water ingestion among the general population. This

key study is the basis for the recommended water

estimates for use in risk assessments involving the

general population.

3.

3.1.1. U.S. EPA Analysis of NHANES 2005−2010

Data

The U.S. EPA used the combined 2005−2006,

2007−2008, and 2009−2010 NHANES data sets to

estimate water ingestion rates for the general

population. The 2005−2010 data set included

information on nearly 25,000 individuals. The U.S.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention surveyed

households across the United States and collected food

and beverage recall data for 2 nonconsecutive days as

part of the NHANES. The first dietary recall interview

was conducted in person in a Mobile Examination

Center, and the second was collected by telephone 3 to

10 days later on a different day of the week. Each

individual in the survey was assigned a sample weight

based on his or her demographic data. These weights

were taken into account when calculating mean and

percentile water ingestion rates from various sources.

The U.S. EPA, Office of Pesticide Programs used

NHANES 2005−2010 data to update the Food

Commodity Intake Database (FCID) that was

developed for earlier analyses of data from the

USDA’s CSFII (USDA, 2000; U.S. EPA, 2000a, b)

and NHANES 2003−2006 (U.S. EPA, 2011). In the

FCID, NHANES data on the foods people reported

eating were converted to the quantities of agricultural

commodities eaten, including water that was added in

the preparation of foods and beverages. The updated

FCID is available at: http://fcid.foodrisk.org/

, along

with the FCID Consumption Calculator which was

used to develop the estimates provided in this chapter

for various age groups of the population. This

calculator may also be used to develop estimates for

other age groups or population, customized to the

users’ needs.

U.S. EPA derived mean and percentile estimates of

daily average water ingestion for the following age

categories: Birth to <1 month, 1 to <3 months, 3 to

<6 months, 6 to <12 months, 1 to <2 years of age, 2 to

<3 years, 3 to <6 years, 6 to <11 years, 11 to <16 years,

16 to <21 years of age, adults 21 years and older in

10-year increments, and all ages. Intake estimates are

also provided for some additional age ranges that may

be of use to risk assessors, including ages birth to

<2 years, 2 to <16 years, 16 to <70 years, 21 to <50

years, and 50+ years.

Consumer-only and per capita water ingestion

estimates were generated for four water source

categories: community water, bottled water, other

sources, and all sources. Consumer-only intake

represents the quantity of water consumed by

individuals during the survey period. These data are

generated by averaging intake across only the

individuals in the survey who reported consumption of

water. Per capita intake rates are generated by

averaging consumer-only intakes over the entire

population (including those individuals that reported

no intake). In general, per capita intake rates are

appropriate for use in exposure assessments for which

average dose estimates are of interest because they

represent both individuals who drank water during the

survey period and individuals who may drink water at

some time but did not consume it during the survey

period. “All sources” included water from all supply

sources such as community water supply (i.e., tap

water), bottled water, other sources, and

missing/unknown sources. “Community water”

included tap water from a community or municipal

water supply. “Other sources” included wells, springs,

cisterns, other nonspecified sources, and

missing/unknown sources that the survey respondent

was unable to identify. The water ingestion estimates

for community water, other sources, and all sources

included both water ingested directly as a beverage

(direct water) and water added to foods and beverages

during final preparation at home or by local food

service establishments such as school cafeterias and

restaurants (indirect water). Bottled water estimates

include direct ingestion only. Commercial water added

by a manufacturer (i.e., water contained in soda or

beer) and intrinsic water in foods and liquids (i.e., milk

and natural undiluted juice) were not included in the

estimates. NHANES water consumption respondent

data were averaged over both days of dietary data.

Intake rate distributions were provided in units of

mL/day and mL/kg-day. The body weights of survey

participants were used in developing intake rate

estimates in units of mL/kg-day.

Tables 3-9 to 3-24 present full distributions for the

various water source categories (community water,

bottled water, other sources, and all sources).

Tables 3-9 to 3-12 provide per capita water ingestion

estimates in mL/day for the various water source

categories (i.e., community, bottled, other, and all

sources). Tables 3-13 to 3-16 present the same

information as Tables 3-9 to 3-12, but in units of

mL/kg-day. Tables 3-17 to 3-20 provide

consumers-only water ingestion estimates in mL/day

for the various source categories. Tables 3-21 to 3-24

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present the same information as Tables 3-17 to 3-20,

but in units of mL/kg-day. Estimates that do not meet

the minimum sample size as described in the Joint

Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical

Reporting Standards on NHANES III and CSFII

Reports: NHIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group

Recommendations (NCHS, 1993), are flagged in the

tables. The design effect used to determine the

minimum required sample size was domain specific

(i.e., calculated separately for various age groups).

When indexed to body weight, the per capita

ingestion rate of water from all sources combined for

children under 6 months of age was more than 4 times

higher than that of adults ≥21 years (see Table 3-16).

Among consumers-only younger than 6 months of

age, the ingestion rate for all sources combined was

more than 5 times that of adults when indexed to body

weight (see Table 3-24). The pattern of decreasing

water ingestion per unit of body weight was also

observed in per capita and consumers-only estimates

of community water (see Tables 3-13 and 3-21), and

other sources (see Tables 3-15 and 3-23). However,

this trend was not observed in estimates of bottled

water.

The advantages of U.S. EPA’s analysis of the

2005−2010 NHANES surveys are (1) that the surveys

were designed to obtain a statistically valid sample of

the civilian noninstitutionalized U.S. population

(i.e., the sampling frame was organized using 2000

U.S. population census estimates); (2) several sets of

sampling weights were available for use with the

intake data to facilitate proper analysis of the data;

(3) the sample size was sufficient to allow

categorization within narrowly defined age categories,

and the large sample provided useful information on

the overall distribution of ingestion by the population

and should adequately reflect the range among

respondent variability; (4) the survey was conducted

over 2 nonconsecutive days, which improved the

variance over consecutive days of consumption; and

(5) the most current FCID data set was used. One

limitation of the data is that the data were collected

over only 2 days and do not necessarily represent

“usual” intake. “Usual dietary intake” refers to the

long-term average of daily intakes by an individual.

Thus, water ingestion estimates based on short-term

data may differ from long-term rates, especially at the

tails of the distribution. There are, however, several

limitations associated with these data. Water intake

estimates for some age groups, particularly at the tails

of the distribution, are less statistically reliable due to

small sample sizes, as noted in Tables 3-9 to 3-24. In

addition, NHANES does not allow for the allocation

of indirect water intake in estimating bottled water

consumption. Another limitation of these data is that

the survey design, while being well tailored for the

overall population of the United States and conducted

throughout the year to account for seasonal variation,

is of limited use for assessing small and potentially

at-risk populations based on ethnicity, medical status,

geography/climate, or other factors such as activity

level.

3.

3.2. Relevant Drinking Water Ingestion

Studies for the General Population

The sections that follow provide summaries of

studies on water ingestion among the general

population that have been categorized as relevant

rather than key. Studies were classified as relevant if

they provided supporting water ingestion data

(e.g., older studies, studies that provided information

on the source of water) or information related to the

factor of interest (e.g., physiologic need for water), or

the study design or approach makes the data less

applicable to the population of interest (e.g., small

sample size, limited to certain age groups).

3.

3.2.1. Wolf (1958)—Body Water Content

Wolf (1958) provided information on the water

content of human bodies, stating that a newborn baby

is about 77% water while an adult male is about 60%

water by weight. An adult male gains and loses about

2,750 mL of water each day. Water intake in dissimilar

mammals varies according to 0.88 power of body

weight.

3.

3.2.2. National Research Council

(1977)―Drinking Water and Health

NRC (1977) calculated the average per capita

water (liquid) consumption per day to be 1.63 L. This

figure was based on a survey of the following literature

sources: Starling (1941); Bourne and Kidder (1953);

Walker et al. (1957); Wolf (1958); Guyton (1968);

McNall and Schlegel (1968); Randall (1973); NRC

(1974); and Pike and Brown (1975) as cited in NRC

(1977). Although the calculated average intake rate

was 1.63 L/day, NRC (1977) adopted a larger rate

(2 L/day) to represent the intake of the majority of

water consumers. This value is relatively consistent

with the total tap water intakes rate estimated from the

key study presented in this chapter. However, the use

of the term “liquid” was not clearly defined in this

study, and it is not known whether the populations

surveyed are representative of the adult U.S.

population. Consequently, the results of this study are

of limited use in recommending total tap water intake

rates, and this study is not considered a key study.

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3.3.2.3. Pennington (1983)―Revision of the Total

Diet Study Food List and Diets

Based on data from the U.S. Food and Drug

Administration's Total Diet Study, Pennington (1983)

reported average intake rates for various foods and

beverages for five age groups of the population. The

Total Diet Study is conducted annually to monitor the

nutrient and contaminant content of the U.S. food

supply and to evaluate trends in consumption.

Representative diets were developed based on 24-hour

recall and 2-day diary data from the 1977−1978

USDA Nationwide Food Consumption Survey

(NFCS) and 24-hour recall data from the Second

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

(NHANES II). The numbers of participants in NFCS

and NHANES II were approximately 30,000 and

20,000, respectively. The diets were developed to

“approximate 90% or more of the weight of the foods

usually consumed” (Pennington, 1983). The source of

water (bottled water as distinguished from tap water)

was not stated in the Pennington study. For the

purposes of this report, the consumption rates for the

food categories defined by Pennington (1983) were

used to calculate total fluid and total water intake rates

for five age groups. Total water includes water, tea,

coffee, soft drinks, and soups and frozen juices that are

reconstituted with water. Reconstituted soups were

assumed to be composed of 50% water, and juices

were assumed to contain 75% water. Total fluids

include total water in addition to milk, ready-to-use

infant formula, milk-based soups, carbonated soft

drinks, alcoholic beverages, and canned fruit juices.

Table 3-25 presents these intake rates. Based on the

average intake rates for total water for the two adult

age groups, 1.04 and 1.26 L/day, the average adult

intake rate is about 1.15 L/day. These rates should be

more representative of the amount of source-specific

water consumed than are total fluid intake rates. This

study, which used both USDA 1978 data and

NHANES II data, was designed to measure food

intake. Consequently, no systematic attempt was

necessarily made to define tap water intake per se, as

distinguished from bottled water. For this reason, it is

not considered a key tap water study in this document.

3.

3.2.4. U.S. EPA (1984)―An Estimation of the

Daily Average Food Intake by Age and Sex

for Use in Assessing the Radionuclide

Intake of the General Population

Using data collected by USDA in the 1977−1978

NFCS, U.S. EPA (1984) determined daily food and

beverage intake levels by age to be used in assessing

radionuclide intake through food consumption. Tap

water, water-based drinks, and soups were identified

subcategories of the total beverage category.

Table 3-26 presents daily intake rates for tap water,

water-based drinks, soup, and total beverages. As seen

in Table 3-26, mean tap water intake for different adult

age groups (age 20 years and older) ranged from 0.62

to 0.76 L/day, water-based drinks intake ranged from

0.34 to 0.69 L/day, soup intake ranged from 0.04 to

0.06 L/day, and mean total beverage intake levels

ranged from 1.48 to 1.73 L/day. Total tap water intake

rates were estimated by combining the average daily

intakes of tap water, water-based drinks, and soups for

each age group. For adults (ages 20 years and older),

mean total tap water intake rates range from 1.04 to

1.47 L/day, and for children (ages <1 to 19 years),

mean intake rates range from 0.19 to 0.90 L/day. The

total tap water intake rates, derived by combining data

on tap water, water-based drinks, and soup should be

more representative of source-specific drinking water

intake than the total beverage intake rates reported in

this study. The chief limitation of the study is that the

data were collected in 1978 and do not reflect the

expected increase in the U.S. consumption of soft

drinks and bottled water or changes in the diet within

the last three decades. Because the data were collected

for only a 3-day period, the extrapolation to chronic

intake is uncertain. Also, these intake rates do not

include reconstituted infant formula. For these

reasons, this is not considered a key study in this

document.

3.

3.2.5. Cantor et al. (1987)―Bladder Cancer,

Drinking Water Source, and Tap Water

Consumption

The National Cancer Institute, in a

population-based, case control study investigating the

possible relationship between bladder cancer and

drinking water, interviewed approximately 8,000 adult

white individuals, 21 to 84 years of age (2,805 cases

and 5,258 controls) in their homes, using a

standardized questionnaire (Cantor et al., 1987). The

cases and controls resided in one of five metropolitan

areas (Atlanta, Detroit, New Orleans, San Francisco,

and Seattle) and five states (Connecticut, Iowa, New

Jersey, New Mexico, and Utah). The individuals

interviewed were asked to recall the level of intake of

tap water and other beverages in a typical week during

the winter prior to the interview. Total beverage intake

was divided into the following two components:

(1) beverages derived from tap water and

(2) beverages from other sources. Tap water used in

cooking foods and in ice cubes was apparently not

considered. Participants also supplied information on

the primary source of the water consumed (i.e., private

well, community supply, bottled water, etc.). The

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control population was randomly selected from the

general population and frequency matched to the

bladder cancer case population in terms of age, sex,

and geographic location of residence. The case

population consisted of whites only and had no people

under the age of 21 years; 57% were over the age of

65 years. The fluid intake rates for the bladder cancer

cases were not used because their participation in the

study was based on selection factors that could bias the

intake estimates for the general population. Based on

responses from 5,258 white controls (3,892 males;

1,366 females), average tap water intake rates for a

“typical” week were compiled by sex, age group, and

geographic region. Table 3-27 lists these rates. The

average total fluid intake rate was 2.01 L/day for men,

of which 70% (1.4 L/day) was derived from tap water,

and 1.72 L/day for women, of which 79% (1.35 L/day)

was derived from tap water. Table 3-28 presents

frequency distribution data for the 5,228 controls, for

which the authors had information on both tap water

consumption and cigarette smoking habits. These data

follow a lognormal distribution having an average

value of 1.30 L/day and an upper 90

th

percentile value

of approximately 2.40 L/day. These values were

determined by graphically interpolating the data of

Table 3-28 after plotting it on log probability graph

paper. These values represent the usual level of intake

for this population of adults in the winter. Limitations

associated with this data set are that the population

surveyed was older than the general population and

consisted exclusively of whites. Also, the intake data

are based on recall of behavior during the winter only.

Extrapolation of the data to other seasons is difficult.

The authors presented data on person-years of

residence with various types of water supply sources

(municipal vs. private, chlorinated vs. nonchlorinated,

and surface vs. well water). Unfortunately, these data

cannot be used to draw conclusions about the national

average apportionment of surface versus groundwater

because a large fraction (24%) of municipal water

intake in this survey could not be specifically

attributed to either ground or surface water.

3.3.

2.6. Ershow and Cantor (1989)—Total Water

and Tap Water Intake in the United States:

Population-Based Estimates of Quantities

and Sources

Ershow and Cantor (1989) estimated water intake

rates based on data collected by the USDA 1977−1978

NFCS. The survey was conducted through interviews

and diary entries. Daily intake rates for tap water and

total water were calculated for various age groups for

males, females, and both sexes combined. Tap water

was defined as “all water from the household tap

consumed directly as a beverage or used to prepare

foods and beverages.” Total water was defined as tap

water plus “water intrinsic to foods and beverages”

(i.e., water contained in purchased food and

beverages). The authors showed that the age, sex, and

racial distribution of the surveyed population closely

matched the estimated 1977 U.S. population.

Table 3-29 presents daily total tap water intake

rates, expressed as mL/day by age group. These data

follow a lognormal distribution. Table 3-30 presents

the same data, expressed as mL/kg-day. This shows

that the mean and 90

th

percentile intake rates for adults

(ages 20 to 65+) are approximately 1,410 mL/day and

2,280 mL/day, and for all ages, the mean and 90

th

percentile intake rates are 1,193 mL/day and 2,092

mL/day. Note that older adults have greater intakes

than do adults between ages 20 and 64, an observation

bearing on the interpretation of the Cantor et al. (1987)

study, which surveyed a population that was older than

the national average (see Section 3.3.2.8).

Ershow and Cantor (1989) also measured total

water intake for the same age groups and concluded

that it averaged 2,070 mL/day for all groups combined

and that tap water intake (1,190 mL/day) is 55% of the

total water intake. Table 3-31 presents total tap water

intake as a percentage of total water intake for various

age groups. Ershow and Cantor (1989) also concluded

that, for all age groups combined, the proportion of tap

water consumed as drinking water or used to prepare

foods and beverages is 54, 10, and 36%, respectively.

(Table 3-32 presents the detailed data on the

proportion of tap water consumed for various age

groups). Ershow and Cantor (1989) also observed that

males of all age groups had higher total water and tap

water consumption rates than females; the variation of

each from the combined-sexes mean was about 8%.

With respect to region of the country, the Northeast

had slightly lower average tap water intake

(1,200 mL/day) than the three other regions (which

were approximately equal at 1,400 mL/day).

This survey has an adequately large size

(26,446 individuals), and it is a representative sample

of the U.S. population with respect to age distribution

and residential location. The data, however, are more

than 20 years old and may not be entirely

representative of current patterns of water intake.

3.3.

2.7. Roseberry and Burmaster (1992)―

Lognormal Distributions for Water Intake

Roseberry and Burmaster (1992) fit lognormal

distributions to the water intake data population-wide

distributions for total fluid and total tap water intake

based on proportions of the population in each age

group. Their publication shows the data and the fitted

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lognormal distributions graphically. The mean was

estimated as the zero intercept, and the standard

deviation (SD) was estimated as the slope of the

best-fit line for the natural logarithm of the intake rates

plotted against their corresponding z-scores

(Roseberry and Burmaster, 1992). Least squares

techniques were used to estimate the best-fit straight

lines for the transformed data. Table 3-33 presents

summary statistics for the best-fit lognormal

distribution. In this table, the simulated balanced

population represents an adjustment to account for the

difference in the age distribution of the U.S.

population in 1988 from the age distribution in 1978

when Ershow and Cantor (1989) collected their data.

Table 3-34 summarizes the quantiles and means of tap

water intake as estimated from the best-fit

distributions. The mean total tap water intake rates for

the two adult populations (ages 20 to 65 years, and

65+ years) were estimated to be 1.27 and 1.34 L/day.

These intake rates were based on the data

originally presented by Ershow and Cantor (1989).

Consequently, the same advantages and disadvantages

associated with the Ershow and Cantor (1989) study

apply to this data set.

3.

3.2.8. Levy et al. (1995)―Infant Fluoride Intake

from Drinking Water Added to Formula,

Beverages, and Food

Levy et al. (1995) conducted a study to determine

fluoride intake by infants through drinking water and

other beverages prepared with water and baby foods.

The study was longitudinal and covered the ages from

birth to 9 months old. A total of 192 mothers, recruited

from the postpartum wards of two hospitals in Iowa

City, completed mail questionnaires and 3-day

beverage and food diaries for their infants at ages

6 weeks, and 3, 6, and 9 months (Levy et al., 1995).

The questionnaire addressed feeding habits, water

sources and ingestion, and the use of dietary fluoride

supplements during the preceding week (Levy et al.,

1995). It also collected data on the quantity of water

consumed by itself or as an additive to infant formula,

other beverages, or foods. In addition, the

questionnaire addressed the infants’ ingestion of

cow’s milk, breast milk, ready-to-feed (RTF) infant

products (formula, juices, beverages, baby food), and

table foods.

Mothers were contacted for any clarifications of

missing data and discrepancies (Levy et al., 1995).

Levy et al. (1995) assessed nonresponse bias and

found no significant differences in the reported

number of adults or children in the family, water

sources, or family income at 3, 6, or 9 months.

Table 3-35 provides the range of water ingestion from

water by itself and from addition to selected foods and

beverages. The percentage of infants ingesting water

by itself increased from 28% at 6 weeks to 66% at

9 months, respectively, and the mean intake increased

slightly over this time frame. During this time frame,

the largest proportion of the infants’ water ingestion

(i.e., 36% at 9 months to 48% at 6 months) came from

the addition of water to formula. Levy et al. (1995)

noted that 32% of the infants at age 6 weeks and 23%

of the infants at age 3 months did not receive any water

from any of the sources studied. Levy et al. (1995) also

noted that the proportion of children ingesting some

water from all sources gradually increased with age.

The advantages of this study are that it provides

information on water ingestion of infants starting at

6 weeks old, and the data are for water only and for

water added to beverages and foods. The limitations of

the study are that the sample size was small for each

age group, it captured information from a select

geographical location, and data were collected through

self-reporting. The authors noted, however, that the

3-day diary has been shown to be a valid assessment

tool. Levy et al. (1995) also stated that (1) for each

time period, the ages of the infants varied by a few

days to a few weeks, and are, therefore, not exact and

could, at early ages, have an effect on age-specific

intake patterns; and (2) the same number of infants

were not available at each of the four time periods.

3.3.2.9. USDA (1995)―Food and Nutrient Intakes

by Individuals in the United States, 1 Day,

1989−1991

USDA (1995) collected data on the quantity of

“plain drinking water” and various other beverages

consumed by individuals in 1 day during 1989 through

1991. The data were collected as part of USDA’s

CSFII. The data used to estimate mean per capita

intake rates combined 1-day dietary recall data from

3 survey years, 1989, 1990, and 1991, during which

15,128 individuals supplied 1-day intake data.

Individuals from all income levels in the

48 conterminous states and Washington D.C. were

included in the sample. A complex three-stage

sampling design was employed, and the overall

response rate for the study was 58%. To minimize the

biasing effects of the low response rate and adjust for

the seasonality, a series of weighting factors was

incorporated into the data analysis. Table 3-36

presents the intake rates based on this study.

Table 3-36 includes data for (1) “plain drinking

water,” which might be assumed to mean tap water

directly consumed rather than bottled water; (2) coffee

and tea, which might be assumed to be constituted

from tap water; (3) fruit drinks and ades, which might

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be assumed to be reconstituted from tap water rather

than canned products; and (4) the total of the three

sources. With these assumptions, the mean per capita

total intake of water is estimated to be 1,416 mL/day

for adult males (i.e., 20 years of age and older),

1,288 mL/day for adult females (i.e., 20 years of age

and older), and 1,150 mL/day for all ages and both

sexes combined. Although these assumptions appear

reasonable, a close reading of the definitions used by

USDA (1995) reveals that the word “tap water” does

not occur, and this uncertainty prevents the use of this

study as a key study of tap water intake.

The advantages of using these data are that (1) the

survey had a large sample size and (2) the authors

attempted to represent the general U.S. population by

oversampling low-income groups and by weighting

the data to compensate for low response rates. The

disadvantages are that (1) the word “tap water” was

not defined, and the assumptions that must be used to

compare the data with the other tap water studies

might not be valid; (2) the data collection period

reflects only a 1-day intake period and may not reflect

long-term drinking water intake patterns; (3) data on

the percentiles of the distribution of intakes were not

given; and (4) the data are almost 20 years old and may

not be entirely representative of current intake

patterns.

3.3.2.10. U.S. EPA (1996)―Descriptive Statistics

from a Detailed Analysis of the National

Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS)

Responses

The U.S. EPA collected information on the number

of glasses of drinking water and juice reconstituted

with tap water consumed by the general population as

part of the National Human Activity Pattern Survey

(NHAPS) (U.S. EPA, 1996). NHAPS was conducted

between October 1992 and September 1994. Over

9,000 individuals in the 48 contiguous United States

provided data on the duration and frequency of

selected activities and the time spent in selected

microenvironments via 24-hour diaries. Over

4,000 NHAPS respondents also provided information

on the number of 8-ounce glasses of water and the

number of 8-ounce glasses of juice reconstituted with

water that they drank during the 24-hour survey period

(see Tables 3-37 and 3-38). The median number of

glasses of tap water consumed was 1−2, and the

median number of glasses of juice with tap water

consumed was 1−2.

For both individuals who drank tap water and

individuals who drank juices reconstituted with tap

water, the number of glasses consumed in a day ranged

from 1 to 20 glasses. The highest percentage of the

population (37.1%) who drank tap water, consumed in

the range of 3−5 glasses a day, and the highest

percentage of the population (51.5%) who consumed

juice reconstituted with tap water consumed

1−2 glasses in a day. Based on the assumption that

each glass contained 8 ounces of water (226.4 mL), the

total volume of tap water and juice with tap water

consumed would range from 0.23 L/day (1 glass) to

4.5 L/day (20 glasses) for respondents who drank tap

water. Using the same assumption, the volume of tap

water consumed for the population who consumed

3−5 glasses would be 0.68 L/day to 1.13 L/day, and

the volume of juice with tap water consumed for the

population who consumed 1−2 glasses would be

0.23−0.46 L/day. Assuming the average individual

consumes 3−5 glasses of tap water plus 1−2 glasses of

juice with tap water, the range of total tap water intake

for this individual would range from 0.9 L/day to

1.64 L/day. These values are consistent with the

average intake rates observed in other studies.

The advantages of NHAPS are that the data were

collected for a large number of individuals and that the

data are representative of the U.S. population.

However, evaluation of drinking water intake rates

was not the primary purpose of the study, and the data

do not reflect the total volume of tap water consumed.

In addition, using the assumptions described above,

the estimated drinking water intake rates from this

study are within the same ranges observed for other

drinking water studies.

3.3.

2.11. Heller et al. (2000)―Water Consumption

and Nursing Characteristics of Infants by

Race and Ethnicity

Heller et al. (2000) analyzed data from the

1994−1996 CSFII to evaluate racial/ethnic differences

in the ingestion rates of water in children younger than

2 years old. Using data from 946 children in this age

group, the mean amounts of water consumed from

eight sources were determined for various

racial/ethnic groups, including black non-Hispanic,

white non-Hispanic, Hispanic, and “other” (Asian,

Pacific Islander, American Indian, Alaskan Native,

and other nonspecified racial/ethnic groups). The

sources analyzed included (1) plain tap water, (2) milk

and milk drinks, (3) reconstituted powdered or liquid

infant formula made from drinking water,

(4) ready-to-feed and other infant formula, (5) baby

food, (6) carbonated beverages, (7) fruit and vegetable

juices and other noncarbonated drinks, and (8) other

foods and beverages. In addition, Heller et al. (2000)

calculated mean plain water and total water ingestion

rates for children by age, sex, region, urbanicity, and

poverty category. Ages were defined as less than

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12 months and 12 to 24 months. Regions were

categorized as Northeast, Midwest, South, and West.

Heller et al. (2000) did not report the states represented

by each of these regions, but it is likely that they

defined these regions in the same way Sohn et al.

(2001) did. See Section 3.6.1.3 for a discussion on

the Sohn et al. (2001) study. Urbanicity of the

residence was defined as urban (i.e., being in a

metropolitan statistical area [MSA], suburban

[outside of an MSA], or rural [being in a non-MSA]).

Poverty category was derived from the poverty

income ratio. In this study, a poverty income ratio

was calculated by dividing the family’s annual

income by the federal poverty threshold for that

size household. The poverty categories used were 0

−1.30, 1.31−3.50, and greater than 3.50 times the

federal poverty level (Heller et al., 2000).

Table 3-39 provides water ingestion estimates for

the eight water sources evaluated, for each of the

race/ethnic groups. Heller et al. (2000) reported that

black non-Hispanic children had the highest mean

plain tap water intake (21 mL/kg-day), and white

non-Hispanic children had the lowest mean plain tap

water intake (13 mL/kg-day). The only statistically

significant difference between the racial/ethnic groups

was found to be in plain tap water consumption and

total water consumption. Reconstituted baby formula

made up the highest proportion of total water intake

for all race/ethnic groups. Table 3-40 presents tap

water and total water ingestion by age, sex, region,

urbanicity, and poverty category. On average, children

younger than 12 months of age consumed less plain

tap water (11 mL/kg-day) than children aged

12−24 months (18 mL/kg-day). There were no

significant differences in plain tap water consumption

by sex, region, or urbanicity. Heller et al. (2000)

reported a significant association between higher

income and lower plain tap water consumption. For

total water consumption, ingestion per kg body weight

was lower for the 12- to 24-month-old children than

for those younger than 12 months of age. Urban

children consumed more plain tap water and total

water than suburban and rural children. In addition,

plain tap water and total water ingestion was found to

decrease with increasing poverty category (i.e., higher

wealth).

A major strength of the Heller et al. (2000) study

is that it provides information on tap water and total

water consumption by race, age, sex, region,

urbanicity, and family income. A weakness in the

CSFII data set is that is that it includes data collected

over only 2 days that may not be entirely

representative of long-term intake.

3.3.

2.12. Marshall et al. (2003a)―Patterns of

Beverage Consumption during the

Transition Stage of Infant Nutrition

Marshall et al. (2003a) investigated beverage

ingestion during the transition stage of infant nutrition.

Mean ingestion of infant formula, cow’s milk,

combined juice and juice drinks, water, and other

beverages was estimated using a frequency

questionnaire. A total of 701 children, aged 6 months

through 24 months, participated in the Iowa Fluoride

Study (IFS). Mothers of newborns were recruited from

1992 through 1995. The parents were sent

questionnaires when the children were 6, 9, 12, 16, 20,

and 24 months old. Of the 701 children, 470 returned

all six questionnaires, 162 returned five, 58 returned

four, and 11 returned three, with the minimum criteria

being three questionnaires to be included in the data

set (Marshall et al., 2003a). The questionnaire was

designed to assess the type and quantity of the

beverages consumed during the previous week. The

validity of the questionnaire was assessed using a

3-day food diary for reference (Marshall et al., 2003a).

Table 3-41 presents the percentage of subjects

consuming beverages and mean daily beverage

ingestion for children with returned questionnaires.

Human milk ingestion was not quantified, but the

percent of children consuming human milk was

provided at each age category (see Table 3-41). Juice

(100%) and juice drinks were not distinguished

separately but categorized as juice and juice drinks.

Water used to dilute beverages beyond normal dilution

and water consumed alone were combined. Based on

Table 3-41, 97% of the children consumed human

milk, formula, or cow’s milk throughout the study

period, and the percentage of infants consuming

human milk decreased with age, while the percent

consuming water increased (Marshall et al., 2003a).

Marshall et al. (2003a) observed that, in general, lower

family incomes were associated with less

breast-feeding and increased ingestion of other

beverages.

The advantage of this study is that it provides mean

ingestion data for various beverages. Limitations of

the study are that it is based on samples gathered in

one geographical area and may not be reflective of the

general population. The authors also noted the

following limitations: the parents were not asked to

differentiate between 100% juice and juice drinks; the

data are parent-reported and could reflect perceptions

of appropriate ingestion instead of actual ingestion,

and a substantial number of the infants from

well-educated, economically secure households

dropped out during the initial phase.

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3.3.2.13. Marshall et al. (2003b)―Relative

Validation of a Beverage Frequency

Questionnaire in Children Aged 6 Months

through 5 Years Using 3-Day Food and

Beverage Diaries

Marshall et al. (2003b) conducted a study based on

data taken from 700 children in the IFS. This study

compared estimated beverage ingestion rates reported

in questionnaires for the preceding week and diaries

for the following week. Packets were sent periodically

(every 4 to 6 months) to parents of children aged

6 weeks through 5 years of age. This study analyzed

data from children, aged 6 and 12 months, and 2 and

5 years of age. Beverages were categorized as human

milk, infant formula, cow’s milk, juice and juice

drinks, carbonated and rehydration beverages,

prepared drinks (from powder), and water. The

beverage questionnaire was completed by parents and

summarized the average amount of each beverage

consumed per day by their children. The data

collection for the diaries maintained by parents

included 1 weekend day and 2 weekdays and included

detailed information about beverages consumed.

Table 3-42 presents the mean ingestion rates of all

beverages for children aged 6 and 12 months and 3 and

5 years. Marshall et al. (2003b) concluded that

estimates of beverage ingestion derived from

quantitative questionnaires are similar to those derived

from diaries. They found that it is particularly useful

to estimate ingestion of beverages consumed

frequently using quantitative questionnaires.

The advantage of this study is that the survey was

conducted in two different forms (questionnaire and

diary) and that diaries for recording beverage ingestion

were maintained by parents for 3 days. The main

limitation is the lack of information on whether the

diaries were populated on consecutive or

nonconsecutive days. The IFS survey participants may

not be representative of the general population of the

United States because participants were primarily

white, and from affluent and well-educated families in

one geographic region of the country.

3.

3.2.14. Skinner et al. (2004)―Transition in

Infants’ and Toddlers’ Beverage Patterns

Skinner et al. (2004) investigated the pattern of

beverage consumption by infants and children

participating in the Feeding Infant and Toddlers Study

(FITS) sponsored by Gerber Products Company. The

FITS is a cross-sectional study designed to collect and

analyze data on feeding practices, food consumption,

and usual nutrient intake of U.S. infants and toddlers

(Devaney et al., 2004). It included a stratified random

sample of 3,022 infants and toddlers between 4 and

24 months of age. Parents or primary caregivers of

sampled infants and toddlers completed a single

24-hour dietary recall of all foods and beverages

consumed by the child on the previous day by

telephone interview. All recalls were completed

between March and July 2002. Detailed information

on data collection, coding, and analyses related to

FITS is provided in Devaney et al. (2004).

Beverages consumed by FITS participants were

identified as total milks (i.e., human milk, infant

formulas, cow’s milk, soy milk, goat’s milk), 100%

juices, fruit drinks, carbonated beverages, water, and

“other” drinks (i.e., tea, cocoa, dry milk mixtures, and

electrolyte replacement beverages). There were six

age groupings in the FITS study: 4 to 6, 7 to 8, 9 to 11,

12 to 14, 15 to 18, and 19 to 24 months. Skinner et al.

(2004) calculated the percentage of children in each

age group consuming any amount in a beverage

category and the mean amounts consumed. Table 3-43

provides the mean beverage consumption rates in

mL/day for the six age categories. Skinner et al. (2004)

found that some form of milk beverage was consumed

by almost all children at each age; however, total milk

ingestion decreased with increasing age. Water

consumption also doubled with age, from 163 mL/day

in children aged 4 to 6 months old to 337 mL/day in

children aged 19 to 24 months old. The percentages of

children consuming water increased from 34% at 4 to

6 months of age to 77% at 19 to 24 months of age.

A major strength of the Skinner et al. (2004) study

is the large sample size (3,022 children). However,

beverage ingestion estimates are based on 1 day of

dietary recall data and human milk quantity derived

from studies that weighed infants before and after each

feeding to determine the quantity of human milk

consumed (Devaney et al., 2004); therefore, estimates

of total milk ingestion may not be accurate.

3.

3.2.15. Barraj et al. (2009)―Within-Day Drinking

Water Consumption Patterns: Results from

a Drinking Water Consumption Study

In 2000/2001, Barraj et al. (2009) conducted a

Drinking Water Consumption Survey (DWCS),

funded by Bayer Crop Science, to generate data that

could be used to assess acute effects of exposures

lasting less than 24 hours. The objective of the study

was to determine how often and how much water

participants ingested during the day. Data for a

nationally representative sample of the U.S.

population were collected over 7-day periods during

both summer (August) and winter (March) months.

The study participants were selected from households

within Bayer’s Home Testing Institute consumer

panel, and diaries were delivered to 3,000 randomly

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selected households in summer, and 3,650 households

in winter. The response rates were 33 and 36%,

respectively, for the summer and winter surveys, with

994 households completing the summer survey, and

1,320 households completing the winter survey. After

excluding diaries with missing or incorrect data, the

final data set represented 4,198 individuals (1,740 in

summer) and 2,458 in winter). The vast majority of

participants were white (90.2% for summer and winter

combined), and males and females above the age of 50

years accounted for the largest portion of participants

(34.5%). Teenage males and females accounted for the

smallest percentage of participants (6.7%), and

children accounted for approximately 13% of the

survey population. Each survey participant was asked

to complete a diary to provide details about their water

consumption patterns over a 7-day period. Using the

diary data for a randomly selected day for each survey

participant, the average number of drinking occasions

per day, the average amount consumed per drinking

occasion, and the average amount of water consumed

per day was determined for each sex and age group for

each season (see Table 3-44).

For all sex and age groups combined, there were

slightly more daily drinking occasions reported for

summer (mean of 4.4) than winter (mean of 4.1), and

the average amount consumed per drinking occasion

was slightly higher in the summer (266 mL/event)

compared to the winter (248 mL/event). Based on one

randomly selected day for each survey participant,

mean daily water intake was higher for summer

(1,141 mL/day; N = 1,740) than for winter

(1,023 mL/day; N = 2,458). Based on all survey days

and all participants (N = 27,192 person-days), the

mean drinking water intake rate for both seasons

combined, was 1,118 mL/day, and the 95

th

percentile

was 2,957 mL/day. The mean and 95

th

percentile

intakes rates were 1,200 and 3,194 mL/day,

respectively, for summer (N = 11,318 person-days),

and 1,056 and 2,780 mL/day, respectively, for winter

(N = 15,874 person-days).

This study was based on a large, nationally

representative sample of the U.S. population, and

provided data by season. Also, it provided information

on the amount of water consumed per event within a

24-hour period, and data were provided by sex and

age. The limitations of this study are that hourly time

increments and 2-ounce amount increments were used

in collecting the diary data. These factors may

contribute to uncertainties regarding the exact

consumption times and the exact amounts consumed.

3.

3.2.16. Zizza et al. (2009)―Total Water Intakes of

Community-Living Middle-Old and

Oldest-Old Adults

Zizza et al. (2009) used data from NHANES

1999−2002 to estimate total water intake among older

Americans, defined as respondents 65 years of age or

older (N = 2,054). Intake was estimated as g/day and

as g/body weight/day. Total water was defined as “the

sum of the amount of drinking water consumed and

the amount of water consumed from food and

beverage sources.” The relative contributions of total

water intake that was derived from plain drinking

water, beverages, and food were also calculated. Total

water intake was estimated for three age groups of

older survey respondents: young-old (65 to <75 years),

middle-old (75 to <85 years), and oldest-old (85+

years). Table 3-45 provides the estimates of total water

intake for these three age groups. Zizza et al. (2009)

reported that total water intake rates for the middle-old

and oldest-old groups were significantly lower than for

the young-old group. Plain drinking water accounted

for 38.1, 39.4, and 39.5% of total water intake for the

young-old, middle-old, and oldest-old age groups

respectively. Beverages accounted for 40.8, 38.3, and

36.4% of total water intake and food accounted for

21.1, 22.2, and 24.2% of total water intake for the

same three age groups respectively.

This study provides information for a nationally

representative population of older Americans.

However, the water categories are somewhat different

from those used elsewhere in this chapter. For

example, plain water category appears to include both

tap water and bottled water. Likewise, water from

beverages may include both water that is intrinsic to

purchased beverages (i.e., widely distributed drinks

such as carbonated soft drinks) as well as beverages

that are prepared with community tap water.

3.

3.2.17. Sebastian et al. (2011)―Drinking Water

Intake in the United States; Rosinger et al.

(2016)―Daily Water Intake among U.S.

Men and Women, 2009−2012

Sebastian et al. (2011) investigated “plain water”

intake using data from NHANES 2005−2008. “Plain

water” was defined as “tap water and noncarbonated

bottled water without sweeteners or other additions.

[It] does not include water naturally present in or

added as an ingredient to other beverages or foods.”

The study authors observed that plain water accounted

for approximately one-third of the total water

consumed (i.e., total water was defined as plain water

plus water contained in foods and beverages).

Approximately 69% of plain water was consumed at

home and 31% was consumed away from home.

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Sebastian et al. (2011) also found that tap water

consumed at home accounted for 46% of the plain

water consumed; 16% of plain water was tap water

consumed away from home. Bottled water consumed

at home accounted for 23% of plain water intake, and

bottled water consumed away from home accounted

for 16% of plain water intake. Using NHANES

2009−2012, Rosinger et al. (2016) estimated that plain

water accounted for 30% of total water intake for mean

and 34% of total intake for women.

These studies provide general information about

plain and total water intake in the United States. The

Sebastian et al. (2011) data are provided in units of

cups/day. The Rosinger et al. (2016) study provides

data in units of L/day, but for mean total water only,

not distributions.

3.

3.2.18. Kahn and Stralka (2009)―Estimated Daily

Average per Capita Water Ingestion by

Child and Adult Age Categories Based on

USDA’s 1994−1996 and 1998 Continuing

Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals and

Supplemental Data, Kahn (2008)

Kahn and Stralka (2009) analyzed the combined

1994−1996 and 1998 CSFII data sets to examine water

ingestion rates of more than 20,000 individuals

surveyed, including approximately 10,000 under age

21 and 9,000 under age 11. Previous CSFII analyses

conducted using the 1994−1996 data sets were

reported in U.S. EPA (2000b). USDA surveyed

households in the United States and District of

Columbia and collected food and beverage recall data

as part of the CSFII (USDA, 1998). Data were

collected by an in-home interviewer. The Day 2

interview was conducted 3 to 10 days later and on a

different day of the week. Each individual in the

survey was assigned a sample weight based on his or

her demographic data. These weights were taken into

account when calculating mean and percentile water

ingestion rates from various sources. Kahn and Stralka

(2009) derived mean and percentile estimates of daily

average water ingestion for the following age

categories: <1 month, 1 to <3 months, 3 to <6 months,

6 to <12 months, 1 to <2 years of age, 2 to <3 years,

3 to <6 years, 6 to <11 years, 11 to <16 years, 16 to

<18 years, 18 to <21 years of age, 21 years and older,

65 years and older, and all ages. The increased sample

size for children younger than 11 years of age (from

4,339 in the initial 1994−1996 survey to

9,643 children in the combined 1994−1996, 1998

survey) enabled water ingestion estimates to be

categorized into the finer age categories recommended

by U.S. EPA (2005). Consumer-only and per capita

water ingestion estimates were reported in the Kahn

and Stralka (2009) study for two water source

categories: all sources and community water. “All

sources” included water from all supply sources such

as community water supply (i.e., tap water), bottled

water, other sources, and missing sources.

“Community water” included tap water from a

community or municipal water supply. Other sources

included wells, springs, and cisterns; missing sources

represented water sources that the survey respondent

was unable to identify. The water ingestion estimates

included both water ingested directly as a beverage

(direct water) and water added to foods and beverages

during final preparation at home or by local food

service establishments such as school cafeterias and

restaurants (indirect water). Commercial water added

by a manufacturer (i.e., water contained in soda or

beer) and intrinsic water in foods and liquids (i.e., milk

and natural undiluted juice) were not included in the

estimates. Kahn and Stralka (2009) only reported the

mean and 90

th

and 95

th

percentile estimates of per

capita and consumers-only ingestion. The full

distributions of ingestion estimates were provided by

the author (Kahn, 2008). Tables 3-46 to 3-61 present

full distributions of direct and indirect water intake for

the various water source categories (community water,

bottled water, other sources, and all sources).

Tables 3-46 to 3-49 provide per capita ingestion

estimates of total water (combined direct and indirect

water) in mL/day for the various water source

categories (i.e., community, bottled, other, and all

sources). Tables 3-50 to 3-53 present the same

information as Tables 3-46 to 3-49, but in units of

mL/kg-day. Tables 3-54 to 3-57 provide

consumers-only combined direct and indirect water

ingestion estimates in mL/day for the various source

categories. Tables 3-58 to 3-61 present the same

information as Tables 3-54 to 3-57 but in units of

mL/kg-day. Estimates that do not meet the minimum

sample size requirements as described in the Joint

Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical

Reporting Standards on NHANES III and CSFII

Reports: NHIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group

Recommendations (NCHS, 1993) are flagged in the

tables.

The CSFII 1994−1996, 1998 data have both

strengths and limitations in regard to estimating water

ingestion. These are discussed in detail in U.S. EPA

(2004) and Kahn and Stralka (2009). The principal

advantages of this survey are that (1) it was designed

to be representative of the U.S. population, including

children and low-income groups; (2) sample weights

were provided that facilitated proper analysis of the

data and accounted for nonresponse; and (3) the

number of individuals sampled (more than 20,000) is

sufficient to allow categorization within narrowly

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defined age categories. Another advantage is that

bottled water estimates include both direct and indirect

intake, whereas the bottled water estimates using

NHANES 2005−2010 data (see Section 3.3.1.1)

include only bottled water consumed directly as a

beverage; they do not include bottled water used in the

preparation of foods. One limitation of this survey is

that data were collected for only 2 days. As discussed

in Section 3.3.1.1 in regard to U.S. EPA’s analysis of

NHANES data, short-term data may not accurately

reflect long-term intake patterns, especially at the

extremes (i.e., tails) of the distribution of water intake.

This study is considered relevant because more recent

data are available from NHANES 2005−2010.

3.4. PREGNANT AND LACTATING WOMEN

3.4.1. Key Study on Pregnant and Lactating

Women

The section that follows provides a summary of the

key study on water ingestion among pregnant and

lactating women.

3.4.1.1. EPA Analysis of Consumption Data from

2005−2010 National Health and Nutrition

Examination Survey

EPA estimated water intake rates for pregnant,

lactating, and all women of child-bearing age (13 to

<50 years) using data from the NHANES for the years

2005 to 2010 and the FCID Consumption Calculator

available at http://fcid.foodrisk.org/

, as described in

Section 3.3.1.1. NHANES 2005−2010 collected data

on dietary recall of food and water consumed over the

previous 24-hour period on 2 nonconsecutive days.

Two-day data were available for 426 pregnant women,

101 lactating women, and 5,543 women of

child-bearing age. In the FCID, NHANES data on the

foods people reported eating were converted to the

quantities of agricultural commodities eaten, including

water that was added in the preparation of foods and

beverages. Two-day average intake rates were

calculated for each survey respondent for community

water, bottled water, other water, and all water

sources. Summary statistics were calculated for the

populations of pregnant, lactating, and females of

child-bearing age (i.e., 13 to <50 years) on both a

consumer-only and on a per capita basis. Table 3-62

provides summary statistics for per capita intake of

water, and Table 3-63 provides the same data on a

consumer-only basis.

As indicated in Section 3.3.1.1, an advantage of

using the EPA’s analysis of NHANES data is it was

designed to be representative of the U.S. population.

The data set used in this analysis used 6 years of intake

data combined. However, the sample sizes for

pregnant and lactating women were relatively small

and short-term dietary data may not accurately reflect

long-term eating or drinking patterns and may

under-represent infrequent consumers of a given food.

This is particularly true for the tails (extremes) of the

food-intake distribution.

3.

4.2. Relevant Studies on Pregnant and

Lactating Women

The sections that follow provide summaries of

relevant studies on water ingestion among pregnant

and lactating women.

3.

4.2.1. Ershow et al. (1991)―Intake of Tap Water

and Total Water by Pregnant and Lactating

Women

Ershow et al. (1991) used data from the 1977−1978

USDA NFCS to estimate total fluid and total tap water

intake among pregnant and lactating women (ages

15−49 years). Data for 188 pregnant women,

77 lactating women, and 6,201 nonpregnant,

nonlactating control women were evaluated. The

participants were interviewed based on 24-hour recall

and then asked to record a food diary for the next

2 days. “Tap water” included tap water consumed

directly as a beverage and tap water used to prepare

food and tap water-based beverages. “Total water”

was defined as all water from tap water and nontap

water sources, including water contained in food.

Tables 3-64 and 3-65 present estimated total fluid and

total tap water intake rates for the three groups,

respectively. Lactating women had the highest mean

total fluid intake rate (2.24 L/day) compared with both

pregnant women (2.08 L/day) and control women

(1.94 L/day). Lactating women also had a higher mean

total tap water intake rate (1.31 L/day) than pregnant

women (1.19 L/day) and control women (1.16 L/day).

The tap water distributions are neither normal nor

lognormal, but lactating women had a higher mean tap

water intake than controls and pregnant women.

Ershow et al. (1991) also reported that rural women

(N = 1,885) consumed more total water (1.99 L/day)

and tap water (1.24 L/day) than urban/suburban

women (N = 4,581, 1.93 and 1.13 L/day, respectively).

Total water and tap water intake rates were lowest in

the northeastern region of the United States (1.82 and

1.03 L/day) and highest in the western region of the

United States (2.06 L/day and 1.21 L/day). Mean

intake per unit body weight was highest among

lactating women for both total fluid and total tap water

intake. Total tap water intake accounted for over 50%

of mean total fluid in all three groups of women

(see Table 3-65). Drinking water accounted for the

largest single proportion of the total fluid intake for

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control (30%), pregnant (34%), and lactating women

(30%) (see Table 3-66). All other beverages combined

accounted for approximately 46, 43, and 45% of the

total water intake for control, pregnant, and lactating

women, respectively. Food accounted for the

remaining portion of total water intake.

The same advantages and limitations associated

with the Ershow and Cantor (1989) data also apply to

these data sets (see Section 3.3.2.6). A further

advantage of this study is that it provides information

on estimates of total water and tap water intake rates

for pregnant and lactating women. This topic has

rarely been addressed in the literature.

3.4.2.2. Shimokura et al. (1998)―Assessment of

Water Use for Estimating Exposure to Tap

Water Contaminants

Shimokura et al. (1998) evaluated water use

among 34 pregnant women and 33 of their male

partners living in North Carolina. The women were up

to 30 weeks pregnant at the time that the survey was

conducted. Most of the women were in their twenties

and thirties, were expecting their first child, and were

in their second trimester of pregnancy. Approximately

three quarters of the women were white and the

remainder were of African American and Asian.

ethnicities They tended to be highly educated and

nonsmokers. Each of the participants completed a

daily diary for 3 days, including one nonworking or

weekend day, and an interview about their daily water

consumption. Information was collected on the

volume of all beverages consumed, which was defined

as total water, and the volume of drinking water and

beverages made with tap water, which was defined as

tap water. The temperature of the beverage (i.e., cold

or hot), as well as the location where the beverage was

consumed, was also recorded. Table 3-67 provides

summary statistics for the participants’ daily water

intake. Daily consumption of total water and tap water

were similar for pregnant women and men, but

differences based on employment status were

observed for daily intake of cold tap water at home.

Table 3-68 provides mean intake rates for pregnant

women and men according to location, beverage type,

and temperature.

This study provides useful information on daily tap

water intake for pregnant women. However, the

definition of total water differs from that used

elsewhere in this chapter (i.e., the water content of

foods is not included). Also, the study population is

relatively small and may not be entirely representative

of the U.S. population.

3.4.2.3. Zender et al. (2001)―Exposure to Tap

Water during Pregnancy

Zender et al. (2001) conducted a study in Colorado

in 1996 and 1997 to compare tap water intake among

pregnant and nonpregnant women. A total of

71 pregnant and 43 nonpregnant women were

recruited from Women, Infant, and Children (WIC)

clinics. Nearly one-half of the pregnant women were

in their second trimester, and one-quarter were in each

of the first and third trimesters. Approximately

one-half of the women worked outside the home, and

nearly all the women had a municipal water source at

their home. The women were interviewed in person or

by phone and responded to questions about the amount

of tap water intake in a day―including the amount

consumed at home and at work. Total tap water intake

included tap water consumed directly as a beverage

and tap water-based cold and hot beverages.

Information on the sources of the water consumed

(e.g., tap water, bottled water, or filtered water) were

also collected. Total tap water intake was slightly

higher for pregnant women (3.4 L/day) than

nonpregnant women (3.0 L/day) (see Table 3-69).

Table 3-70 shows the principal source of drinking

water for pregnant and for nonpregnant women. Tap

water accounted for 72−75% of total water intake.

The advantage of this study is that it investigated

tap water consumption based on location (i.e., at home

and at work) and by source (i.e., bottled, filtered, or

tap water). However, the sample size was small and

the study population may not be representative of the

entire United States.

3.

4.2.4. Forssén et al. (2007)―Predictors of Use

and Consumption of Public Drinking Water

among Pregnant Women; Forssén et al.

(2009)―Variability and Predictors of

Changes in Water Use during Pregnancy

Forssén et al. (2007) evaluated the demographic

and behavioral characteristics that would be important

in predicting water consumption among pregnant

women in the United States. Data were collected

through telephone interviews with 2,297 pregnant

women in three geographical areas in the southern

United States. Women 18 years old and ≤12 weeks

pregnant were recruited from the local communities

and from both private and public prenatal care

facilities. Variables studied included demographic

characteristics, health status and history (e.g., diabetes,

pregnancy history), behavioral patterns (e.g., exercise,

smoking, caffeine consumption), and some

physiological characteristics (e.g., prepregnancy

weight). Daily amount of water ingestion was

estimated based on cup sizes defined in the interview.

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Water consumption was reported as cold tap water

(filtered and unfiltered) and bottled water. Other

behavioral information on water use such as

showering and bathing habits, use of swimming pools,

hot tubs, and Jacuzzis was also collected. The overall

mean cold tap water ingested was 1.7 L/day

(percentiles: 25

th

= 0.5 L/day, 50

th

= 1.4 L/day,

75

th

= 2.4 L/day, and 90

th

= 3.8 L/day). The overall

mean bottled water ingested was 0.6 L/day

(percentiles: 25

th

= 0.1 L/day, 50

th

= 0.2 L/day,

75

th

= 0.6 L/day, and 90

th

= 1.8 L/day). Table 3-71

presents water ingestion by the different variables

studied, and Table 3-72 presents the percentage of

ingested tap water that is filtered and unfiltered by

various variables.

Forssén et al. (2009) studied changes in water use

over the course of pregnancy based on data for

1,990 women that were still pregnant during a second

interview. Mean cold tap water intake increased from

prepregnancy (1.5 L/day) though early pregnancy

(1.7 L/day) to mid-pregnancy (1.8 L/day)

(see Table 3-73). Mean hot tap water intake decreased

slightly from prepregnancy (0.18 L/day) to early and

mid-pregnancy (0.16 L/day). Bottled water intake was

essentially the same during early and mid-pregnancy

(0.57 and 0.59 L/day, respectively). The greatest

changes in water consumption were reported for cold

tap water where 80% of the women reported either

increases or decreases in consumption; 33% reported

changes (increases or decreases) equal to or greater

than 1.0 L/day (see Table 3-74).

The advantage of these studies is that they

investigated water consumption in relation to multiple

variables, and over the course of pregnancy. However,

the study population was not random and may not be

representative of the entire United States. There may

also be limitations associated with recall bias.

3.4.2.5. Kahn and Stralka (2008)―Estimates of

Water Ingestion for Women in Pregnant,

Lactating, and Nonpregnant and

Nonlactating Child-Bearing Age Groups

Based on USDA’s 1994−1996, 1998 CSFII

The combined 1994−1996 and 1998 CSFII data

sets were analyzed to examine the ingestion of water

by various segments of the U.S. population as

described in Section 3.3.1.1. Kahn and Stralka (2008)

provided water intake data for pregnant, lactating, and

child-bearing age women. Mean and upper percentile

distribution data were provided. Lactating women had

an estimated per capita mean community water

ingestion of 1.38 L/day, the highest water ingestion

rates of any among the population evaluated. The

mean consumer-only rate was 1.67 L/day. Tables 3-75

through 3-82 provide estimated drinking water intakes

for pregnant and lactating women, and nonpregnant,

nonlactating women aged 15−44 years old. The same

advantages and limitations discussed in

Section 3.3.1.1 apply to these data. An additional

limitation of this analysis is that the sample size was

relatively small (i.e., 70 pregnant and 41 lactating

women). This study is considered relevant, but not key

because more recent data are available for pregnant

and lactating women.

3.5. FORMULA-FED INFANTS

3.5.1. Key Study on Formula-Fed Infants

The section that follows provides a summary of the

key study on water ingestion among formula-fed

infants.

3.5.

1.1. Kahn et al. (2013)―Estimates of Water

Ingestion in Formula by Infants and

Children Based on USDA’s 1994−1996 and

1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by

Individuals

Kahn et al. (2013) used data from the 1994−1996

and 1998 CSFII to estimate water ingestion among

formula-fed infants, ages <1 month, 1 to <3 months,

3 to <6 months, 6 to <12 months, and 1 to <2 years.

The same methodology was used as in Kahn and

Stralka (2009), as described in Section 3.3.2.18.

Indirect water ingestion among “formula-consumers

only” was based on the estimated amount of

community water used to reconstitute or dilute infant

formula. Total indirect and direct water intake among

formula-fed infants represented both water used to

reconstitute or dilute baby formula and water

consumed directly as a beverage. Mean and 95

th

percentile indirect, and total indirect and direct water

ingestion rates for formula-consuming infants are

provided in Table 3-83. On a mL/day basis, mean

intake rates increased between <1 month and 3 to

<6 months and then declined; on a mL/kg-day basis,

mean intake declined from <1 month to 1 to <2 years.

The same advantages and disadvantages discussed

in Section 3.3.2.18 apply to these data. In addition, as

suggested by Kahn et al. (2013), while the more recent

data may be available (e.g., NHANES) for this type of

analysis, the amount of water ingested by formula-fed

infants would not be expected to change significantly

because the nutritional needs of infants would not be

expected to have varied over time.

3.5.2. Relevant Studies on Formula-Fed Infants

The section that follows provides summaries of the

re

levant studies on water ingestion among formula-fed

infants. Sections 3.3.2.8 (Levy et al., 1995), 3.3.2.11

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(Heller et al., 2000), and 3.3.2.12 (Marshall et al.,

2003a) also provide some relevant information on

ingestion of water used in reconstituting infant

formula.

3.5.2.

1. Hilbig et al. (2002)―Measured

Consumption of Tap Water in German

Infants and Young Children as Background

for Potential Health Risk Assessment: Data

of the DONALD Study

Hilbig et al. (2002) estimated tap water ingestion

rates based on 3-day dietary records of 504 German

children aged 3, 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, and 36 months. The

data were collected between 1990 and 1998 as part of

the Dortmund Nutritional and Anthropometric

Longitudinally Designed (DONALD) study. The

DONALD study was a cohort study that collected data

on diet, metabolism, growth, and development from

healthy subjects between infancy and adulthood

(Sichert-Hellert et al., 2001). Beginning in 1985,

approximately 40 to 50 infants were enrolled in the

study annually. Mothers of the participants were

recruited in hospital maternity wards. Tap water

ingestion rates were calculated for three subgroups of

children: (1) breast-fed infants ≤12 months of age

(exclusive and partial breast-fed infants),

(2) formula-fed infants ≤12 months of age (no human

milk, but including weaning food), and (3) mixed-fed

young children aged 18 to 36 months. Hilbig et al.

(2002) defined “total tap water from household” as

water from the tap consumed as a beverage or used in

food preparation. “Tap water from food

manufacturing” was defined as water used in industrial

production of foods, and “Total Tap Water” was

defined as tap water consumed from both the

household and that used in manufacturing.

Table 3-84 summarizes total tap water ingestion

(in mL/day and mL/kg-day) and tap water ingestion

from household and manufacturing sources (in

mL/kg-day) for breast-fed, formula-fed, and

mixed-fed children. Mean total tap water intake during

the 1

st

year of life was higher in formula-fed infants

(53 mL/kg-day) than in breast-fed infants

(17 mL/kg-day) and mixed-fed young children

(19 mL/kg-day). Tap water from household sources

constituted 66 to 97% of total tap water ingestion in

the different age groups.

The major limitation of this study is that the study

sample consists of families from an upper social

background in Germany (Hilbig et al., 2002). Because

the study was conducted in Germany, the data may not

be directly applicable to the U.S. population.

However, this study was included in this chapter

because similar data for a U.S. population of

infants

are limited.

3.5.2.2. Levallois et al. (2008)―Drinking Water

Intake by Infants Living in Rural Quebec

(Canada)

Levallois et al. (2008) conducted a survey on a

population of 2-month-old infants residing in seven

agricultural areas of Canada. Eligible newborns were

born in this rural area of Quebec between January and

April 2002. Infants who were less than 34 weeks of

gestation at birth, families who did not speak French,

or those served by surface water supplies were

excluded from the study. Families who were eligible

for participation were sent a letter explaining the

survey followed by a phone interview with the infant’s

mother. There were 642 mothers who participated in

the survey, which was conducted when the infants

were 8−9 weeks old. Questions asked during the phone

interview included those on feeding practices such as

the quantity and number of feedings each day and the

specific type and volume of water used for preparing

formula, juices, or cereals. Of the 642 participating

infants, 38.3% were exclusively breast-fed and,

therefore, had no drinking water intake. Almost half of

the participating infants (47.5%) were fed either

ready-to-use formula or dry formula mixed with water,

and 14.2% received mixed breast and formula

feedings. Infants who consumed some water

comprised 61.2% of the participants, and among these

59, 34, and 7% consumed mostly tap water, bottled

water, or both tap and bottled water, respectively. For

consumers, mean tap water intake was 564 mL/day

(105 mL/kg-day) and mean bottled water intake was

504 mL/day (94 mL/kg/day) (see Table 3-85).

This study provides quantitative estimates of

drinking water consumption by a population of

2-month-old infants according to their feeding

practices. Limitations of the study include the fact that

drinking water intake was not measured, but was

provided by the infants’ mothers during telephone

interviews. Although the participants resided in rural

areas of Canada, which may not be entirely

representative of the U.S. population, it is assumed

that drinking water intake for formula-fed infants

would be similar to that of those in the United States.

Therefore, Levallois et al. (2008) was included here as

a relevant study.

3.5.2.3. Schier et al. (2010)―Perchlorate Exposure

from Infant Formula and Comparisons with

the Perchlorate Reference Dose

Schier et al. (2010) estimated perchlorate

exposures among 1- and 6-month-old infants

consuming reconstituted powdered infant formula,

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using measured concentrations of perchlorate in the

formula and estimated formula intake rates. Infant

formula ingestion rates were estimated as the product

of average infant energy intakes in kcal/kg-day and

estimated infant body weights, divided by the

estimated number of calories in the infant formula in

kcal/L formula. The estimated 50

th

percentile formula

intake rate was estimated to be 0.7 L/day for

1-month-old infants and 1.0 L/day for 6-month-old

infants. The estimated 90

th

percentile formula intake

rate was estimated to be 1.0 L/day for 1-month-old

infants and 1.4 L/day for 6-month-old infants. This

study provides an indirect estimate of water intake

among formula-fed infants.

3.6. H

IGH ACTIVITY LEVELS/HOT

CLIMATES

3.6.1. Relevant Studies on High Activity

Levels/Hot Climates

The following sections provide summaries of

relevant studies on water ingestion associated with

various activity levels and climates.

3.6.

1.1. McNall and Schlegel (1968)―Practical

Thermal Environmental Limits for Young

Adult Males Working in Hot, Humid

Environments

McNall and Schlegel (1968) conducted a study that

evaluated the physiological tolerance of adult males

working under varying degrees of physical activity.

Subjects were required to operate pedal-driven

propeller fans for 8-hour work cycles under varying

environmental conditions. The activity pattern for

each individual was cycled as 15 minutes of pedaling

and 15 minutes of rest for each 8-hour period. Two

groups of eight subjects each were used. Work rates

were divided into three categories as follows: high

activity level (0.15 horsepower [hp] per person),

medium activity level (0.1 hp per person), and low

activity level (0.05 hp per person). Evidence of

physical stress (i.e., increased body temperature, blood

pressure, etc.) was recorded, and individuals were

eliminated from further testing if certain stress criteria

were met. The amount of water consumed by the test

subjects during the work cycles was also recorded.

Water was provided to the individuals on request.

Table 3-86 presents the water intake rates obtained

at the three different activity levels and the various

environmental temperatures. The data presented are

for test subjects with continuous data only (i.e., those

test subjects who were not eliminated at any stage of

the study due to stress conditions). Water intake was

the highest at all activity levels when environmental

temperatures were increased. The highest intake rate

was observed at the low activity level at 100°F

(0.65 L/hour); however, there were no data for higher

activity levels at 100°F. It should be noted that this

study estimated intake on an hourly basis during

various levels of physical activity. These hourly intake

rates cannot be converted to daily intake rates by

multiplying by 24 hours/day because they are only

representative of intake during the specified activity

levels, and the intake rates for the rest of the day are

not known. Therefore, comparison of intake rate

values from this study cannot be made with values

from the previously described studies on drinking

water intake.

3.6.

1.2. U.S. Army (1983, 1999)―Water

Consumption Planning Factors

The U.S. Army has developed water consumption

planning factors to enable it to transport an adequate

amount of water to soldiers in the field under various

conditions (U.S. Army, 1983, 1999). Both climate and

activity levels were used to determine the appropriate

water consumption needs. Consumption factors have

been established for the following uses: (1) drinking,

(2) heat treatment, (3) personal hygiene,

(4) centralized hygiene, (5) food preparation and

sanitation, (6) laundry, (7) medical treatment,

(8) vehicle and aircraft maintenance, (9) graves

registration, and (10) construction. Only personal

drinking water consumption factors are described

here. Drinking water consumption planning factors are

based on the estimated amount of water needed to

replace fluids lost by urination, perspiration, and

respiration. It assumes that water lost to urinary output

averages 1 quart/day (0.9 L/day), and perspiration

losses range from almost nothing in a controlled

environment to 1.5 quarts/day (1.4 L/day) in a very hot

climate where individuals are performing strenuous

work. Water losses to respiration are typically very

low except in extreme cold where water losses can

range from 1 to 3 quarts/day (0.9 to 2.8 L/day). This

occurs when the humidity of inhaled air is near zero,

but expired air is 98% saturated at body temperature

(U.S. Army, 1983).

Drinking water is defined by the U.S. Army (1983,

1999) as “all fluids consumed by individuals to satisfy

body needs for internal water.” This includes soups,

hot and cold drinks, and tap water. Planning factors

have been established for hot, temperate, and cold

climates based on the following mixture of activities

among the workforce: 15% of the force performing

light work, 65% of the force performing medium

work, and 20% of the force performing heavy work.

Hot climates are defined as tropical and arid areas

where the temperature is greater than 80°F. Temperate

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climates are defined as areas where the mean daily

temperature ranges from 32 to 80°F. Cold regions are

areas where the mean daily temperature is less than

32°F. Table 3-87 presents drinking water consumption

factors for these three climates. These factors are

based on research on individuals and small unit

training exercises. The estimates are assumed to be

conservative because they are rounded up to account

for the subjective nature of the activity mix and minor

water losses that are not considered (U.S. Army, 1983,

1999).

The advantage of using these data is that they

provide conservative estimates of drinking water

intake among individuals performing at various levels

of physical activity in hot, temperate, and cold

climates. However, the planning factors described

here are based on assumptions about water loss from

urination, perspiration, and respiration, and are not

based on survey data or actual measurements.

3.6.

1.3. Sohn et al. (2001)―Fluid Consumption

Related to Climate among Children in the

United States

Sohn et al. (2001) investigated the relationship

between fluid consumption among children aged 1 to

10 years and local climate using data from the

NHANES III (1988−1994). Children who completed

the 24-hour dietary interview (or proxy interview for

the younger children) during the NHANES III survey

were selected for the analysis. Breast-fed children

were excluded from the analysis. Among 8,613

children who were surveyed, 688 (18%) were

excluded due to incomplete data. A total of

7,925 eligible children remained. Because data for

climatic conditions were not collected in the NHANES

III survey, the mean daily maximum temperature from

1961 to 1990, averaged for the month during which the

NHANES III survey was conducted, was obtained for

each survey location from the U.S. Local Climate

Historical Database. Of the 7,925 eligible children

with complete dietary data, temperature information

was derived for only 3,869 children (48.8%) because

detailed information on survey location, in terms of

county and state, was released only for counties with a

population of more than a half million.

Sohn et al. (2001) calculated the total amount of

fluid intake for each child by adding the fluid intake

from plain drinking water and the fluid intake from

foods and beverages other than plain drinking water

provided by NHANES III. Sohn et al. (2001)

identified major fluid sources as milk (and milk

drinks), juice (fruit and vegetable juices and other

noncarbonated drinks), carbonated drinks, and plain

water. Fluid intake from sources other than these

major sources was grouped into other foods and

beverages. Other foods and beverages included bottled

water, coffee, tea, baby food, soup, water-based

beverages, and water used for diluting food.

Table 3-88 presents mean fluid ingestion rates of

selected fluids for the total sample population and for

the subsets of the sample population with and without

temperature information. The estimated mean total

fluid and plain water ingestion rates for the

3,869 children for whom temperature information was

obtained are presented in Table 3-89 according to age

(years), sex, race/ethnicity, poverty:income ratio,

region, and urbanicity. Poverty:income ratio was

defined as the ratio of the reported family income to

the federal poverty level. The following categories

were assigned: low socioeconomic status

(SES) = 0.000 to 1.300 times the poverty:income

ratio; medium SES = 1.301 to 3.500 times the

poverty/income level; and high SES = 3.501 or greater

times the poverty/income level. Regions were

Northeast, Midwest, South, and West, as defined by

the

U.S. Census Bureau

(see Table 3-89). Sohn et al.

(2001) did not find a significant association between

mean daily maximum temperature and total fluid or

plain water ingestion, either before or after controlling

for sex, age, SES, and race or ethnicity. However,

significant associations between fluid ingestion and

age, sex, socioeconomic status, and race and ethnicity

were reported.

The main strength of the Sohn et al. (2001) study

is the evaluation of water intake as it relates to weather

data. The main limitations of this study were that

northeastern and western regions were

over-represented because temperature data were only

available for counties with populations over one-half

million. In addition, whites were under-represented

compared to other racial or ethnic groups. Other

limitations include lack of data for children from

extremely cold or hot weather conditions.

3.6.1.4. Kant et al. (2009)―Intakes of Plain Water,

Moisture in Foods and Beverages, and Total

Water in the Adult U.S.

Population―Nutritional, Meal Pattern, and

Body Weight Correlates: NHANES

1999−2006; Kant and Graubard

(2010)―Contributors of Water Intake in

U.S. Children and Adolescents:

Associations with Dietary and Meal

Characteristics―National Health and

Nutrition Examination Survey 2005−2006

Using data from NHANES 1999-2004, Kant et al.

(

2009) estimated water intake for adults, ages

≥20 years (N = 4,112), based on their reported activity

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levels. Intake was for plain water (i.e., including tap

water, water from a cooler or drinking fountain, spring

water, and noncarbonated bottled water), water in

beverages and food, and total water (i.e., the sum of

plain water and moisture in beverages and food).

Beverages included “all types of liquid milk, shakes,

fruit or vegetable juices, juice drinks, carbonated and

noncarbonated sweetened or unsweetened drinks,

coffee, tea, hot chocolate, all alcoholic drinks, and

carbonated water.” Multiple linear regression was

used to compute adjusted mean water intake based on

covariates such as sex, age, race/ethnicity, body mass

index, income, education, smoking status, chronic

illness, survey wave, survey day, and leisure-time

physical activity. Leisure-time physical activity was

categorized as having any leisure-time activity lasting

≥10 minutes over the previous month, and according

to the average activity level on a given day (i.e., mostly

sitting, mostly standing, carry light loads or climb

hills, or heavy work or carry heavy loads). Table 3-90

provides a summary of water intake for adults

according to these activity categories. Higher intake

rates of plain and total water were associated with

participation in any leisure-time activity. Higher

intake of moisture from beverages and total water

were associated with higher average activity levels on

a usual day (see Table 3-90).

Kant and Graubard (2010) used a similar approach

with data from NHANES 2005−2006 to estimate

water intake for children ages 2−19 years of age

(N = 3,978). However, the activity level definitions

differed from those used for adults in Kant and

Graubard (2009). Kant and Graubard (2010) classified

activity levels for 2- to 11-year-old children based on

the number of times per week the child was reported

to have played or exercised hard enough to induce

sweat. The categories were: 0 times = none, 1−2 = a

little, 3−4 = some, and ≥5 = a lot. For children

12−19 years of age, activity levels were based on three

questions about whether participants had any

leisure-time activity lasting ≥10 minutes. The three

questions pertained to vigorous, moderate, or muscle

strengthening activities. The categories were no to all

three questions = none, yes to 1 question = a little, yes

to 2 questions = some, and yes to all three

questions = a lot. Table 3-90 provides water intake

estimates based on these activity levels. Kant and

Graubard noted that the physical activity level was

only weakly associated with plain water intake, but not

with the moisture content of beverages or foods, or

with total water.

These studies provide information on water intake

based on physical activity. However, the water

categories are somewhat different from those used

elsewhere in this chapter. For example, plain water

category appears to include both tap water and bottled

water. Likewise, beverage moisture may include both

water that is intrinsic to purchased drinks (i.e., widely

distributed beverages such as carbonated soft drinks)

as well as beverages that may be prepared with

community tap water (e.g., coffee).

3.

6.1.5. Yang and Chun (2014)―Consumptions of

Plain Water, Moisture in Foods and

Beverages, and Total Water in Relation to

Dietary Micronutrient Intakes and Serum

Nutrient Profiles among U.S. Adults

Yang and Chun (2014) conducted a study similar

to Kant et al. (2009). They estimated water intake

among adults, ages 20 years of age and older, based on

activity levels. NHANES 2005−2006 data were used

to estimate intake of plain water, water from beverages

and food, and total water. The definitions of these

water categories were the same as those in Kant et al.

(2009), but the levels of physical activity were defined

differently. Yang and Chun (2014) based the activity

levels on “the metabolic equivalent (MET) score

calculated by combining the intensity level of the

leisure-time activities reported, mean duration and

frequency.” Water intake was evaluated for four

activity levels: no activity (0) and three tertiles of the

MET score (T1, T2, and T3). The mean daily total

water intake for adults was 3,066 g (see Table 3-90).

Yang and Chun (2014) reported that the contributions

to total water were 46% from beverages, 32% from

plain water, and 22% from food, and higher activity

was associated with higher total water intake.

Like the Kant et al. (2009) study, this study

provides information on total water intake based on

activity levels. However, the water categories differ

from those used elsewhere in this chapter.

3.

6.1.6. Montain and Ely (2010)―Water

Requirements and Soldier Hydration

Montain and Ely (2010) provided an overview of

factors that affect soldiers’ hydration and water

balance, including environment, physical activity and

load, and body size and gender. For example,

increasing temperature and relative humidity increase

sweating and the need for water replacement. The type

of clothing worn and the load being carried can also

affect the rate of perspiration and need for water

replacement. Factors affecting water needs in cold

climates include: cold-induced diuresis (increased

urine loss), respiratory water loss from breathing cold

dry air, clothing insulation that induces sweating, and

the metabolic cost of movement in cold terrain. High

altitude hypoxia can also contribute to water loss.

Because sweat losses are dependent on exercise

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intensity and duration, water needs increase as energy

expenditure increases (Montain and Ely, 2010).

Energy expenditure and the need for water

replacement also increases with carrying increasingly

heavy loads. Montain and Ely (2010) suggested that

activity-related caloric costs increase with increasing

body size; thus, larger individuals may require larger

amounts of water. Likewise, men may require more

water than women because they “are heavier and

sweat more profusely than women.” Montain and Ely

(2010) stated that “an individual soldier’s daily water

requirements to sustain hydration can range from

2 L/day to an excess of 12 L/day, depending on

weather conditions, physical activity, and physical

size.

This report provides useful information on the

factors influencing water losses during military

operations. The values presented here are consistent

with the recommended planning factors summarized

in U.S. Army (1983, 1999) and Section 3.6.1.2.

3.7. WA

TER INGESTION WHILE

SWIMMING AND DIVING

3.7.1. Key Studies on Water Ingestion While

Swimming

The section that follows provides a summary of the

key study on water ingestion that may occur while

swimming.

3.7.

1.1. Dufour et al. (2006)―Water Ingestion

during Swimming Activities in a Pool: A

Pilot Study; Dufour et al. (2017)―Ingestion

of Swimming Pool Water by Recreational

Swimmers

Dufour et al. (2006) estimated the amount of water

ingested while swimming, using cyanuric acid as an

indicator of pool water ingestion exposure. Cyanuric

acid is a breakdown product of chloroisocyanates,

which are commonly used as disinfectant stabilizers in

recreational water treatment. Because ingested

cyanuric acid passes through the body unmetabolized

(Allen et al., 1982), the volume of water ingested can

be estimated based on the amount of cyanuric acid

measured in the pool water and in the urine of

swimmers, as follows:

V

pool water ingested

= V

urine

× (CA

urine

÷ CA

pool

)

(Eqn. 3-1)

wher

e:

V

pool water ingested

= volume of pool water ingested

(mL),

V

urine

= volume of urine collected over a

24-hour period (mL),

CA

urine

= concentration of cyanuric acid in

urine (mg/L), and

CA

pool

= concentration of cyanuric acid in

pool water (mg/L).

Th

e assumption that ingested cyanuric acid passes

through the body unmetabolized is based on a study by

Allen et al. (1982) in which two volunteers ingested

known amounts of cyanuric acid and collected their

own urine for 24 hours thereafter. Allen et al. (1982)

estimated the recovery of ingested cyanuric acid to be

98%. Also, according to Dufour et al. (2006), dermal

absorption of cyanuric acid has been shown to be

negligible. Thus, the concentration in urine was

assumed to represent the amount ingested. Dufour et

al. (2006) estimated pool water intake among

53 swimmers that participated in a pilot study at an

outdoor swimming pool treated with chloroisocyanate.

This pilot study population included 12 adults (4 males

and 8 females) and 41 children under 18 years of age

(20 males and 21 females). The study participants

were asked not to swim for 24 hours before or after a

45-minute period of active swimming in the pool. Pool

water samples were collected prior to the start of

swimming activities, and swimmers’ urine was

collected for 24 hours after the swimming event ended.

The pool water and urine sample were analyzed for

cyanuric acid.

Table 3-91 presents the results of this pilot study.

The mean volumes of water ingested over a 45-minute

period were 16 mL (16/mL/0.75 hr = 21 mL/hr) for

adults and 37 mL (37 mL/0.75 hr = 49 mL/hr) for

children. The maximum volume of water ingested by

adults was 53 mL/0.75 hr (71 mL/hr) and by children,

was 154 mL/0.75 hr (205 mL/hr). The 97

th

percentile

volume of water ingested by children was

approximately 90 mL/0.75 hr (120 mL/hr).

This study is one of the first attempts to measure

water ingested while swimming. However, the number

of study participants was low, and data cannot be

broken out by the recommended age categories (U.S.

EPA, 2005).

Using the same approach as in the pilot study

reported in Dufour et al. (2006), Dufour et al. (2017)

investigated the ingestion of swimming pool water

among a study population of 549 individuals at nine

public swimming pools in the Columbus, Ohio area

that had been disinfected with chloroisocyanurate. The

study participants included both males and females in

approximately equal numbers. The participants

represented three age groups: children 6−10 years old

(N = 66), teens 11−15 years old (N = 121), and adults,

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defined as individuals 16 years and older (N = 362).

Study participants were asked to perform normal

swimming activities for approximately one hour and

collect their own urine over the following 24 hours.

For all swimmers, the arithmetic mean pool water

volume ingested was 32 mL/event and the geometric

mean was 14 mL/event (Dufour et al., 2017).

Table 3-92 provides the ingestion rates in units of

mL/hour by age and sex, as reported by Dufour et al.

(2017). Children 6−10 years old ingested more water

per swimming event and spent nearly twice as much

time in the water as older children and adults. The

estimated geometric mean ingestion rate for children

6−10 years, and teens 11−15 years was 24 mL/hour.

The estimated geometric mean ingestion rate for adults

(ages 16 years and older) was 12 mL/hour, but adult

males ingested water at a higher rate (16 mL/hour)

than adult females (9 mL/hour). The 95

th

percentile

ingestion rates were 96 mL/hour for children,

152 mL/hour for teens, and 105 mL/hour for adults

(Dufour and Wymer, 2017).

Using data obtained from the authors (Dufour,

2017), arithmetic mean ingestion rates and additional

percentiles of the distributions were estimated for

additional age groups of children as shown in

Table 3-93. The arithmetic mean ingestion rates were

38, 44, 33, and 28 mL/hour for ages 6 to <11, 11 to

<16, 16 to <21, and 21+ years, respectively. The 95

th

percentile ingestion rates were 96, 152, 105, and

92 mL/hour for ages 6 to <11, 11 to <16, 16 to <21,

and 21+ years, respectively.

This study provides estimated swimming pool

water ingestion rates based on a large sample

population, and the volumes of water ingested per

event are relatively consistent with those of the pilot

study. According to Dufour et al. (2017) “Caution

must be taken in interpreting these derived numbers

[i.e., ingestion rates] too strictly, given they are based

on self-reported data (minutes in the water); thus, they

could be less reliable because of the anecdotal

propensity of children, and even adults, to under- or

over-estimate how much time is spent in the water.”

As noted by Dufour et al. (2006), swimming behavior

of pool swimmers may be similar to freshwater

swimmers, but may differ from saltwater swimmers.

3.7.

2. Relevant Studies on Water Ingestion

While Swimming, Diving, or Engaging in

Recreational Water Activities

The sections that follows provide summaries of the

relevant studies on water ingestion while engaging in

recreational water activities.

3.7.2.1. Schijven and de Roda Husman (2006)―A

Survey of Diving Behavior and Accidental

Occupational and Sport Divers to Assess the

Risk of Infection with Waterborne

Pathogenic Microorganisms

Schijven and de Roda Husman (2006) estimated

the amount of water ingested by occupational and

sports divers in the Netherlands. Questionnaires were

used to obtain information on the number of dives for

various types of water bodies, and the approximate

volume of water ingested per dive. Estimates of the

amount of water ingested were made by comparing

intake to common volumes (i.e., a few

drops = 2.75 mL; shot glass = 25 mL; coffee

cup = 100 mL; soda glass = 190 mL). The study was

conducted among occupational divers in 2002 and

among sports divers in 2003 and included responses

from more than 500 divers. Table 3-94 provides the

results of this study. On average, occupational divers

ingested 9.8 mL/dive in marine water and 5.7 mL/dive

in fresh water. Sports divers wearing an ordinary

diving mask ingested 9.0 mL/dive marine water and

13 mL/dive fresh recreational water. Sports divers

who wore full face masks ingested less water. The

main limitation of this study is that no measurements

were taken. It relies on estimates of the perceived

amount of water ingested by the divers. Although

these data are from the Netherlands, it is assumed that

water ingestion among divers in the United States

would be similar, and studies involving U.S. divers

were not identified.

3.7.

2.2. Schets et al. (2011)―Exposure Assessment

for Swimmers in Bathing Waters and

Swimming Pools

Schets et al. (2011) collected exposure data for

swimmers in fresh water, seawater, and swimming

pools in 2007 and 2009. Information on the frequency,

duration, and amount of water swallowed were

collected via questionnaires administered to nearly

10,000 people in the Netherlands. Individuals 15 years

of age and older were considered adults and answered

questions for themselves, and a parent answered the

questions for their eldest child under 15 years of age.

Survey participants estimated the amount of water that

they swallowed while swimming by responding in one

of four ways: (1) none or only a few drops; (2) one or

two mouthfuls; (3) three to five mouthfuls; or (4) six

to eight mouthfuls. Schets et al. (2011) conducted a

series of experiments to measure the amount of water

that corresponded to a mouthful of water and

converted the data in the four response categories to

volumes of water ingested. Monte Carlo analyses were

used to combine the distribution of volume

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(i.e., mouthful) measurements with the distribution of

responses in the four response categories to generate

distributions of the amount of water swallowed per

event for adult men and women, and children less than

15 year of age. Table 3-95 presents the means and 95%

confidence intervals for the duration of swimming and

amount of water ingested during swimming.

Frequency data were also provided by Schets et al.

(2011), but these data are not presented here because

they are for the population of the Netherlands and may

not be representative of swimming frequency in the

United States. According to Schets et al. (2011), the

mean volume of water ingested by children

(<15 years) during an average swimming pool event

lasting 81 minutes was 51 mL or 0.63 mL/min

(38 mL/hour). The values for children were slightly

lower for swimming in fresh water and seawater. For

adults, the mean volume of water ingested ranged from

18 to 34 mL over swimming events lasting 41 to 68

minutes (see Table 3-95).

The advantages of this study are that it is based on

a relatively large sample size and that data are

provided for various types of swimming environments

(i.e., pools, fresh water, and seawater). Although these

data are from the Netherlands, and based primarily on

self-reported estimates, the mean values reported in

this study are similar to those based on measurements

of cyanuric acid in the urine of U.S. swimmers as

reported by Dufour et al. (2006).

3.7.

2.3. Dorevitch et al. (2011)―Water Ingestion

during Water Recreation

Dorevitch et al. (2011) estimated the volumes of

water ingested during “limited contact water

recreation activities.” These activities included

canoeing, fishing, kayaking, motor boating, rowing,

wading and splashing, and walking. Full contact

scenarios (i.e., swimming and immersion) were also

evaluated. Dorevitch et al. (2011) estimated water

intake among individuals greater than 6 years of age

using two different methods in studies conducted in

2009. In the first surface water study, self-reported

estimates of ingestion were obtained via interview of

2,705 individuals after they had engaged in recreation

activities in Chicago area surface waters. A total of

2,705 participants reported whether they swallowed no

water, a drop or two, a teaspoon, or one or more

mouthfuls of water during one of the five limited

contact recreational activities (i.e., canoeing, fishing,

kayaking, motor boating, and rowing). A second study

was conducted in swimming pools where

662 participants engaged in limited contact scenarios

(i.e., canoeing, simulated fishing, kayaking, motor

boating, rowing, wading/splashing, and walking), as

well as full contact activities such as swimming and

immersion. Participants were interviewed after

performing their water activity and reported on their

estimated water ingestion. In addition, 24-hour urine

samples were collected for analysis of cyanuric acid, a

tracer of swimming pool water. Translation factors for

each of the reported categories of ingestion (e.g., none,

drop/teaspoon, mouthful) were developed using the

results of the urine analyses. These translation factors

were used to estimate the volume of water ingested for

the various water activities evaluated in this study

(Dorevitch et al., 2011). Table 3-96 presents the

estimated volumes of water ingested for the limited

and full contact scenarios. Swimmers had the highest

estimated water intake (mean = 10 mL/hr; 95% upper

confidence limit = 35 mL/hr) among the activities

evaluated.

The advantage of this study is that it provides

information on the estimated volume of water ingested

during both limited and full contact recreational

activities. However, the data are based on

self-reporting, and data are not provided for individual

age groups of the population.

3.7.

2.4. Suppes et al. (2014)―Assessment of

Swimmers Behaviors on Pool Water

Ingestion

Suppes et al. (2014) conducted a study at four

swimming pools in Tucson, AZ in 2012. Pool water

ingestion was estimated based on the concentration of

cyanuric acid in the urine as in the Dufour et al. (2006,

2017) studies. Environmental sensors and

videography techniques were also used to identify

activities that might lead to increased water ingestion

(e.g., head submersion, splashes of water to the face,

duration of swimming activities). Questionnaires were

used to collect information on age, gender, and type of

swimming activity that participants engaged in

(e.g., playing, diving, sitting, lap swimming). A total

of 64 swimmers, ages 5 to 52 years old, participated in

the study, and 35 of those who were videotaped also

submitted useable 24-hour urine samples after

swimming for a 45-minute period. The mean pool

water ingestion rates for these 35 swimmers was

reported to be 13.7 mL/hr (see Table 3-97). The

age-group-specific ingestion rates were 3.5 mL/hr for

adults (>18 years of age, N = 19) and 25.7 mL/hr for

children (≤18 years of age, N = 16). The mean

ingestion rate for children in this study was similar to

the geometric mean ingestion rate for children (6 to

15 years of age) observed by Dufour et al. (2017).

Leisure swimmers were more likely to ingest pool

water than lap swimmers, and splashes of the water to

the face, were associated with higher ingestion rates.

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Associations between the number and duration of head

submersions, as estimated by videography, and pool

water ingestion rates were not observed. The

environmental sensors were found to be less accurate

for assessing the number and duration of head

submersions when compared to use of videography.

This study provides additional evidence of pool water

ingestion among swimmers, but is based on a

relatively small sample; the data for children were not

provided according to age categories, and upper

percentile (e.g., 90

th

or 95

th

percentile) values were not

provided.

3.

7.2.5. Sinclair et al. (2016a)―Variability in

24-Hour Excretion of Cyanuric Acid:

Implications for Water Exposure

Assessment

Sinclair et al. (2016a) tested the assumption that

the cyanuric acid ingested while swimming is

completed excreted within 24 hours. In the Sinclair et

al. (2016a) study, 26 volunteers (20−56 years of age;

mostly male) drank a solution containing 1 mg of

cyanuric acid and collected their own urine for

24 hours thereafter. The urine samples were then

analyzed for cyanuric acid to estimate the amount that

was excreted over the 24 hours post ingestion. The

recovery of cyanuric acid over 24 hours varied among

the 26 participants. The mean value was 85.3%, and

the median was 94.5%, with 16 of the 26 individuals

having excretion values ranging from 89 to 105%.

This study provides information on the excretion

of cyanuric acid. The information is relevant to studies

that use cyanuric acid levels in urine to estimate

swimming pool water ingestion. The study was

conducted in Australia, but excretion of cyanuric acid

among that population would not be expected to differ

from U.S. populations.

3.

7.2.6. DeFlorio-Barker et al. (2017)―Child

Environmental Exposures to Water and

Sand at the Beach: Findings from Studies

of Over 68,000 Subjects at 12 Beaches

DeFlorio-Barker et al. (2017) estimated the

amount of water ingested per beach water contact

event by conducting simulations based on

self-reported time spent in the water and the amount of

water swallowed per minute. Data for the time spent

in the water were based on data from interviews

conducted in 2003−2009 at temperate beaches in the

contiguous United States. (DeFlorio-Barker et al.,

2017; Arnold et al., 2016). The survey data

represented a total of 68,685 beachgoers; 21,015 at

4 freshwater beaches and 47,670 at 8 marine beaches.

At both freshwater and marine beaches, approximately

67% of beachgoers had some form of contact with the

water (e.g., wading, swimming, playing); 13,568 had

water contact at freshwater beaches and 31,685 had

water contact at marine beaches. Data on the amount

of water swallowed per minute were based on

swimming pool studies conducted by Dufour et al.

(2017) using cyanuric acid as a biomarker of exposure,

as described in Section 3.7.1.1.

Table 3-98 presents age-specific estimates of the

amount of water swallowed per water contact event for

freshwater, marine, and all types of beach locations

combined based on these simulations. Children were

found to ingest more water per event than adults, males

were found to ingest more than females, and ingestion

by individuals recreating at marine beaches tended to

be higher than for those at freshwater beaches.

The advantage of this study is that it provides

estimates of the volume of water ingested while

recreating at freshwater and marine beaches. The

estimates are based on the time spent in the water, and

represent the amount swallowed per event in units of

mL/event. These data may not be applicable to other

types of water contact activities (e.g., water skiing or

diving, swimming in a pool) where the time spent in

the water may differ from that of beachgoers. Also,

any uncertainties associated with recall data on the

time spent in the water would also be applicable to

these estimates.

3.

8. OTHER INADVERTENT WATER

INGESTION

3.8.1. Sinclair et al. (2016b)―Measuring Water

Ingestion from Spray Exposures

Sinclair et al. (2016b) estimated the volume of

water ingested from spray exposures. Twenty-six

study participants, aged 18 to 25 years, engaged in a

10-minute simulated car wash activity using a

high-pressure spray device and water treated with

cyanuric acid. Study participants were asked not to

swim in a cyanuric acid-treated swimming pool for

48 hours prior to the simulation and provided

presimulation urine samples for a subset of the

participants to verify the absence of cyanuric acid in

the urine. All participants wore protective coveralls,

gloves, waterproof footwear, and safety glasses during

the simulation. After the simulations, 24-hour urine

samples were collected and analyzed for cyanuric

acid. Among the 26 participants, 18 had quantifiable

levels of cyanuric acid in their urine after engaging in

the simulation exercise; 6 had trace levels, and 2 had

no detectable levels. As in the Dufour et al. (2006,

2017) studies, it was assumed that 100% of the

cyanuric acid that was ingested was excreted in the

urine (see Section 3.7.1.1). The maximum volume of

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

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Page 3-34

water ingested was estimated to be 3.79 mL, and the

10

th

, 50

th

, and 90

th

percentiles were 0.019, 0.175, and

1.84 mL, respectively. When the data were adjusted

for potential variability in excretion among

individuals, based on data from Sinclair et al. (2016a;

see Section 3.7.2.5), the mean and 95

th

percentile

volumes of water ingested were estimated to be 0.438

(SD 1.24) and 1.93 mL, respectively.

This study is based on a relatively small sample,

but provides data for a scenario in which water may be

inadvertently ingested. As noted by Sinclair et al.

(2016b), while it is assumed that this exposure

scenario represents ingestion alone, inhalation may

have accounted for a portion of the exposures that

occurred during the simulation. Thus, the ingestion

estimates provided in Sinclair et al. (2016b) would be

conservative estimates of ingestion exposures.

3.9. R

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Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-38

Table 3-9. Two-Day Average

a

per Capita

b

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

c

Water Ingestion Based on National Health

and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Community Water (mL/day)

Population Group

Sample

Size

Percent

Consuming

d

Mean

SE

Percentiles

1

st

5

th

10

th

25

th

50

th

75

th

90

th

95

th

99

th

Max

All ages

Age group

Birth to <1 month

1 to <3 months

3 to <6 months

6 to <12 months

Birth to 1 year

1 to <2 years

2 to <3 years

3 to <6 years

6 to <11 years

11 to <16 years

16 to <21 years

21 to <30 years

30 to <40 years

40 to <50 years

50 to <60 years

60 to <70 years

70 to <80 years

80+ years

Birth to <2 years

2 to <16 years

16 to <70 years

21 to <50 years

50+ years

Race

Mexican American

Non-Hispanic black

Non-Hispanic white

Other Hispanic

Other race―including multiple

24,673

87

233

282

588

1,190

728

751

1,418

2,292

2,551

2,191

2,082

2,282

2,378

2,103

2,214

1,578

915

1,918

7,012

13,250

6,742

6,810

5,787

5,337

10,294

2,082

1,173

65

32

19

29

48

37

59

62

61

65

56

60

66

71

65

67

68

64

72

48

61

67

55

66

62

66

711

184

145

187

269

220

146

205

208

294

315

436

781

902

880

956

941

772

784

185

278

845

858

902

433

516

796

566

721

27

59

32

29

22

13

14

18

28

24

45

43

48

44

58

47

46

15

16

33

36

42

32

24

36

43

60

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

338

0

48

94

111

161

71

137

364

580

546

698

732

627

688

0

111

502

506

689

87

238

438

216

407

1,107

87

0

180

552

399

240

299

333

445

427

613

1,191

1,391

1,389

1,516

1,534

1,281

1,255

266

403

1,335

1,377

1,428

593

711

1,272

823

1,118

1,994

781

e

734

780

876

839

378

630

588

765

932

1,340

2,127

2,409

2,371

2,458

2,315

1,826

1,792

699

749

2,273

2,329

2,239

1,297

1,440

2,173

1,582

1,900

2,641

851

e

905

e

981

e

988

974

565

778

741

1,071

1,395

1,900

2,848

2,967

2,964

2,976

2,972

2,273

2,122

858

1,069

2.906

2,938

2,827

1,867

2,049

2,794

2,441

2,567

4,066

1,037

e

1,224

e

1,288

e

1,168

e

1,177

e

813

e

1,121

e

1,074

e

1,909

2,650

3,095

5,009

4,409

4,474

4,451

3,885

3,437

e

2,785

e

1,159

e

2,107

4,375

4,587

4,066

3,397

3,633

4,165

4,318

3,878

e

8,634

e

1,037

e

1,403

e

1,390

e

1,797

e

1,797

e

2,619

e

2,861

e

2,179

e

4,048

e

5,120

e

7,184

e

7,504

e

7,402

e

7,041

e

6,554

e

8,634

e

4,975

e

5,334

e

2,619

e

5,120

e

8,633

e

7,504

e

8,634

e

7,504

e

7,402

e

8,634

e

7,184

e

7,018

e

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-39

Table 3-9. Two-Day Average

a

per Capita

b

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

c

Water Ingestion Based on National Health

and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Community Water (mL/day) (Continued)

a

Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and

nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated

using

http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

b

Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.

c

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages.

d

Represents the percentage of individuals consuming at least once over the 2-day survey period.

e

Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III

and CSFII Reports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).

HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.

NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.

SE = Standard error.

Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005−2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-40

Table 3-10. Two-Day Average

a

per Capita

b

Estimates of Direct

c

Water Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition

Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Bottled Water (mL/day)

Population Group

Sample

Size

Percent

Consuming

d

Mean

SE

Percentiles

1

st

5

th

10

th

25

th

50

th

75

th

90

th

95

th

99

th

Max

All ages

Age group

Birth to <1 month

1 to <3 months

3 to <6 months

6 to <12 months

Birth to <1 year

1 to <2 years

2 to <3 years

3 to <6 years

6 to <11 years

11 to <16 years

16 to <21 years

21 to <30 years

30 to <40 years

40 to <50 years

50 to <60 years

60 to <70 years

70 to <80 years

80+ years

Birth to <2 years

2 to <16 years

16 to <70 years

21 to <50 years

50+ years

Race

Mexican American

Non-Hispanic black

Non-Hispanic white

Other Hispanic

Other race―including multiple

24,673

87

233

282

588

1,190

728

751

1,418

2,292

2,551

2,191

2,082

2,282

2,378

2,103

2,214

1,578

915

1,918

7,012

13,250

6,742

6,810

5,787

5,337

10,294

2,082

1,173

44

19

12

18

31

23

38

39

40

42

45

50

52

50

42

39

30

19

30

43

48

51

37

60

52

40

55

49

326

7

8

11

34

22

71

105

121

156

235

380

459

468

427

342

278

190

108

45

174

400

451

273

428

391

290

432

351

13

3

2

4

2

7

12

10

16

26

28

29

21

23

19

16

15

4

9

17

20

14

26

20

13

34

30

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

96

119

96

0

74

0

167

74

0

118

0

428

0

30

0

89

119

148

237

296

563

724

711

595

474

355

156

0

40

250

592

674

296

615

533

326

580

501

1,066

15

e

15

44

119

82

241

333

389

474

689

1,125

1,460

1,422

1,303

1,166

970

711

370

156

533

1,259

1,400

947

1,275

1,199

963

1,303

1,076

1,570

44

e

44

e

89

e

178

133

356

533

578

731

1,095

1,500

1,888

1,965

1,896

1,751

1,461

1,093

737

267

778

1,784

1,925

1,462

1,746

1,711

1,483

1,974

1,583

2,666

155

e

192

e

133

e

333

e

281

e

633

e

1,133

e

1,092

e

1,252

1,874

2,678

2,930

3,237

3,018

2,666

2,266

2,184

e

1,639

e

578

e

1,642

2,948

3,184

2,370

2,784

3,018

2,503

2,910

2,714

e

8,834

e

296

e

192

e

178

e

680

e

680

e

790

e

4,205

e

1,762

e

4,717

e

4,322

e

5,810

e

7,673

e

6,636

e

8,834

e

4,513

e

5,024

e

3,228

e

6,213

e

790

e

4,717

e

8,834

e

8,834

e

6,213

e

6,213

e

6,634

e

8,834

e

7,673

e

4,717

e

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-41

Table 3-10. Two-Day Average

a

per Capita

b

Estimates of Direct

c

Water Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition

Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Bottled Water (mL/day) (Continued)

a

Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and

nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated

using

http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

b

Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.

c

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water, defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages, was not accounted

for in the estimation of bottled water intake.

d

Represents the percentage of individuals consuming at least once over the 2-day survey period.

e

Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III

and CSFII Reports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).

HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.

NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.

SE = Standard error.

Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005−2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-42

Table 3-11. Two-Day Average

a

per Capita

b

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

c

Water Ingestion Based on National

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Other Sources (mL/day)

Population Group

Sample

Size

Percent

Consuming

d

Mean

SE

Percentiles

1

st

5

th

10

th

25

th

50

th

75

th

90

th

95

th

99

th

Max

All ages

Age group

Birth to <1 month

1 to <3 months

3 to <6 months

6 to <12 months

Birth to <1 year

1 to <2 years

2 to <3 years

3 to <6 years

6 to <11 years

11 to <16 years

16 to <21 years

21 to <30 years

30 to <40 years

40 to <50 years

50 to <60 years

60 to <70 years

70 to <80 years

80+ years

Birth to <2 years

2 to <16 years

16 to <70 years

21 to <50 years

50+ years

Race

Mexican American

Non-Hispanic black

Non-Hispanic white

Other Hispanic

Other race―including multiple

24,673

87

233

282

588

1,190

728

751

1,418

2,292

2,551

2,191

2,082

2,282

2,378

2,103

2,214

1,578

915

1,918

7,012

13,250

6,742

6,810

5,787

5,337

10,294

2,082

1,173

33

45

50

53

49

50

37

35

36

32

39

34

30

28

33

32

36

28

44

36

31

32

45

29

32

40

34

272

273

351

355

274

307

77

93

84

105

198

217

194

262

372

401

332

397

250

198

135

304

281

365

202

128

317

166

251

24

51

39

24

21

11

13

8

12

18

34

29

38

40

39

33

14

9

29

32

33

12

10

32

15

31

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

15

0

200

590

710

758

581

665

94

88

89

82

202

153

92

97

389

423

404

582

282

289

115

225

173

431

249

59

229

181

267

948

745

e

911

971

852

878

280

326

269

387

703

707

614

867

1,324

1,407

1,223

1,495

936

741

457

1,066

963

1,323

631

462

1,147

610

811

1,571

860

e

1,055

e

1,154

e

1,023

1,048

356

524

481

614

1,078

1,221

1,005

1,798

2,065

2,178

1,766

1,938

1,334

903

737

1,779

1,725

1,918

938

721

1,824

832

1,324

3,117

936

e

1,154

e

1,391

e

1,359

e

1,315

e

725

e

914

e

889

e

1,100

2,252

2,682

2,800

3,304

3,843

4,113

2,989

2,754

e

1,952

e

1,232

e

1,456

3,456

3,383

3,574

2,186

1,569

3,402

1,446

3,004

e

8,398

e

1,011

e

1,489

e

1,424

e

1,486

e

1,489

e

1,485

e

2,284

e

4,698

e

2,437

e

3,911

e

7,815

e

8,127

e

7,459

e

8,398

e

7,600

e

7,447

e

5,316

e

3,917

e

1,489

e

4,698

e

8,398

e

8,398

e

7,600

e

5,036

e

4,911

e

8,398

e

3,680

e

4,562

e

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-43

Table 3-11. Two-Day Average

a

per Capita

b

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

c

Water Ingestion Based on National

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Other Sources (mL/day) (Continued)

a

Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and

nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated

using

http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

b

Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.

c

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages.

d

Represents the percentage of individuals consuming at least once over the 2-day survey period.

e

Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III

and CSFII Reports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).

HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.

NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.

SE = Standard error.

Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005−2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-44

Table 3-12. Two-Day Average

a

per Capita

b

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

c

Water Ingestion Based on National

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: All Sources (mL/day)

Population Group

Sample

Size

Percent

Consuming

d

Mean

SE

Percentiles

1

st

5

th

10

th

25

th

50

th

75

th

90

th

95

th

99

th

Max

All ages

Age group

Birth to <1 month

1 to <3 months

3 to <6 months

6 to <12 months

Birth to <1 year

1 to <2 years

2 to <3 years

3 to <6 years

6 to <11 years

11 to <16 years

16 to <21 years

21 to <30 years

30 to <40 years

40 to <50 years

50 to <60 years

60 to <70 years

70 to <80 years

80+ years

Birth to <2 years

2 to <16 years

16 to <70 years

21 to <50 years

50+ years

Race

Mexican American

Non-Hispanic black

Non-Hispanic white

Other Hispanic

Other race―including multiple

24,673

87

233

282

588

1,190

728

751

1,418

2,292

2,551

2,191

2,082

2,282

2,378

2,103

2,214

1,578

915

1,918

7,012

13,250

6,742

6,810

5,787

5,337

10,294

2,082

1,173

99

78

83

98

87

98

99

98

97

98

99

100

99

100

92

98

99

100

99

98

99

1,309

464

505

552

576

549

293

403

413

555

748

1,033

1,435

1,632

1,680

1,698

1,551

1,359

1,142

428

587

1,549

1,590

1,540

1,064

1,035

1,403

1,164

1,323

19

53

30

21

16

12

16

11

17

30

36

49

39

46

38

37

28

26

13

15

25

33

25

27

25

26

44

48

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

3

e

0

22

23

54

106

88

e

170

e

0

e

0

4

7

72

7

0

20

e

105

0

e

0

e

0

e

19

0

15

43

45

42

34

24

121

233

246

254

365

357

317

0

39

185

194

310

97

69

112

97

163

221

0

e

0

66

0

50

75

88

105

89

125

274

383

441

485

527

486

429

15

89

354

363

487

185

170

247

185

274

527

40

0

105

265

169

144

165

184

237

296

356

614

792

859

915

889

841

698

149

227

758

853

392

398

597

426

571

1,061

580

603

634

603

598

248

327

339

469

573

883

1,202

1,401

1,471

1,498

1,363

1,272

1,007

320

456

1,336

1,369

1,354

807

795

1,191

888

1,115

1,827

745

847

844

829

369

561

566

754

999

1,447

1,947

2,252

2,272

2,245

2,082

1,728

1,493

704

767

2,112

2,170

2,016

1,453

1,391

1,962

1,589

1,815

2,698

860

e

1,030

1,065

1,024

1,030

614

831

816

1,106

1,556

2,201

2,867

3,149

3,144

3,065

2,746

2,366

1,953

903

1,205

2,968

3,082

2,796

2,248

2,246

2,820

2,532

2,656

3,292

945

e

1,124

e

1,207

e

1,168

1,159

768

1,001

980

1,389

2,242

2,741

3,600

3,857

3,821

3,925

3,205

2,748

2,296

1,058

1,571

3,633

3,760

3,363

2,872

2,800

3,410

3,307

3,278

4,767

1,037

e

1,265

e

1,391

e

1,383

e

1,388

c

934

e

1,317

e

1,495

e

2,305

3,402

3,742

5,259

5,135

5,091

5,349

4,160

3,619

e

3,236

e

1,359

e

2,769

5,135

5,167

4,650

4,490

4,393

4,851

4,584

4,397

e

10,280

e

1,234

e

1,489

e

1,456

e

1,797

e

1,797

e

2,619

e

4,205

e

4,698

e

5,473

e

5,120

e

7,815

e

8,325

e

7,459

e

10,280

e

7,600

e

8,634

e

5,316

e

7,054

e

2,619

e

5,473

e

10,280

e

10,280

e

8,634

e

7,504

e

7,519

e

10,280

e

8,325

e

7,018

e

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-45

Table 3-12. Two-Day Average

a

per Capita

b

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

c

Water Ingestion Based on National

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: All Sources (mL/day) (Continued)

a

Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and

nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated

using

http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

b

Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.

c

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages. Does not include

indirect consumption of bottled water.

d

Represents the percentage of individuals consuming at least once over the 2-day survey period.

e

Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III

and CSFII Reports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).

HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.

NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.

SE = Standard error.

Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005−2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-46

Table 3-13. Two-Day Average

a

per Capita

b

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

c

Water Ingestion Based on National

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Community Water (mL/kg-day)

Population Group

Sample

Size

Percent

Consuming

d

Mean

SE

Percentiles

1

st

5

th

10

th

25

th

50

th

75

th

90

th

95

th

99

th

Max

All ages

Age group

Birth to <1 month

1 to <3 months

3 to <6 months

6 to <12 months

Birth to <1 year

1 to <2 years

2 to <3 years

3 to <6 years

6 to <11 years

11 to <16 years

16 to <21 years

21 to <30 years

30 to <40 years

40 to <50 years

50 to <60 years

60 to <70 years

70 to <80 years

80+ years

Birth to <2 years

2 to <16 years

16 to <70 years

21 to <50 years

50+ years

Race

Mexican American

Non-Hispanic black

Non-Hispanic white

Other Hispanic

Other race―including multiple

24,673

87

233

282

588

1,190

728

751

1,418

2,292

2,551

2,191

2,082

2,282

2,378

2,103

2,214

1,578

915

1,918

7,012

13,250

6,742

6,810

5,787

5,337

10,294

2,082

1,173

65

32

19

29

48

37

59

62

61

65

56

60

66

71

65

67

68

64

72

48

61

67

55

66

62

66

10.7

42.0

25.3

26.7

30.2

29.2

13.1

14.8

11.5

9.9

5.8

6.2

10.5

11.2

11.1

11.9

11.7

10.4

11.3

21.6

9.1

10.7

11.0

11.5

7.4

7.9

11.7

9.1

12.7

0.4

13.6

5.4

5.1

3.3

3.1

1.1

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.5

0.3

0.6

0.7

1.9

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.5

0.6

1.0

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

5.8

0

4.3

7.0

6.1

5.2

1.2

2.0

4.9

7.3

6.7

8.6

9.0

7.8

9.5

0

3.5

6.3

8.6

1.7

3.6

7.1

4.3

7.8

16.3

20.8

0

24.8

60.7

48.4

21.0

21.6

18.4

15.0

8.1

8.9

16.3

16.9

17.6

18.3

18.6

16.8

18.0

23.2

13.2

16.9

17.0

18.1

10.2

11.5

18.3

13.1

19.1

28.6

191.5

e

128.4

102.1

98.6

108.2

34.4

44.1

32.6

26.2

16.7

18.7

28.7

29.5

30.4

30.6

29.5

25.0

26.2

78.5

26.0

29.3

29.6

29.1

21.0

21.2

30.3

24.3

32.9

37.1

199.6

e

163.7

e

140.6

e

112.1

136.7

50.8

58.1

42.1

33.9

25.7

27.6

38.9

37.8

38.3

37.0

35.3

30.8

30.4

111.6

35.4

36.7

38.3

35.2

30.0

28.4

39.0

34.4

43.7

64.1

253.0

e

267.2

e

187.6

e

139.9

e

192.2

e

75.6

e

78.2

e

55.7

e

58.2

51.4

41.0

64.1

56.5

61.2

58.0

53.0

55.1

e

41.4

e

174.2

e

62.2

58.3

60.7

53.9

56.3

51.1

64.5

53.1

82.5

e

267.5

e

253.0

e

267.5

e

252.6

e

213.9

e

267.5

e

216.4

e

227.1

e

126.6

e

157.4

e

81.9

e

82.0

e

99.9

e

91.9

e

110.1

e

103.4

e

120.7

e

80.8

e

64.8

e

267.5

e

227.1

e

120.7

e

110.1

e

120.7

e

244.4

e

267.5

e

252.6

e

224.0

e

227.1

e

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-47

Table 3-13. Two-Day Average

a

per Capita

b

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

c

Water Ingestion Based on National

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Community Water (mL/kg-day) (Continued)

a

Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and

nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated

using

http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

b

Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.

c

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages.

d

Represents the percentage of individuals consuming at least once over the 2-day survey period.

e

Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III

and CSFII Reports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).

HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.

NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.

SE = Standard error.

Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005−2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-48

Table 3-14. Two-Day Average

a

per Capita

b

Estimates of Direct

c

Water Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition

Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Bottled (mL/kg-day)

Population Group

Sample

Size

Percent

Consuming

d

Mean

SE

Percentiles

1

st

5

th

10

th

25

th

50

th

75

th

90

th

95

th

99

th

Max

All ages

Age group

Birth to <1 month

1 to <3 months

3 to <6 months

6 to <12 months

Birth to <1 year

1 to <2 years

2 to <3 years

3 to <6 years

6 to <11 years

11 to <16 years

16 to <21 years

21 to <30 years

30 to <40 years

40 to <50 years

50 to <60 years

60 to <70 years

70 to <80 years

80+ years

Birth to <2 years

2 to <16 years

16 to <70 years

21 to <50 years

50+ years

Race

Mexican American

Non-Hispanic black

Non-Hispanic white

Other Hispanic

Other race―including multiple

24,673

87

233

282

588

1,190

728

751

1,418

2,292

2,551

2,191

2,082

2,282

2,378

2,103

2,214

1,578

915

1,918

7,012

13,250

6,742

6,810

5,787

5,337

10,294

2,082

1,173

44

19

12

18

31

23

38

39

40

42

45

50

52

50

42

39

30

19

30

43

48

51

37

60

52

40

55

49

4.9

1.6

1.4

1.5

3.6

2.6

6.3

7.6

6.7

5.0

4.2

5.6

6.0

5.9

5.3

4.1

3.5

2.5

1.6

4.3

5.2

5.1

5.7

3.4

7.2

5.5

4.2

7.2

6.0

0.2

0.6

0.4

0.3

0.4

0.3

0.6

0.8

0.6

0.3

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.3

0.2

0.3

0.2

0.4

0.2

0.6

0.5

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

1.3

1.6

1.2

0

1.0

0

3.3

1.3

0

2.1

0

6.6

0

3.8

0

7.7

8.7

8.4

7.1

5.9

8.4

9.1

9.0

7.9

5.6

4.2

1.9

0

4.1

6.8

7.3

8.5

3.8

10.7

7.9

5.1

9.6

9.2

15.5

3.0

e

2.4

5.7

13.5

9.5

22.9

23.3

21.4

15.3

12.5

16.8

18.9

17.8

16.6

13.6

12.3

9.2

5.0

14.7

16.4

16.2

17.6

12.0

20.0

16.7

13.9

20.4

19.3

22.3

10.8

e

8.4

e

11.9

e

20.9

15.2

31.6

38.5

31.8

23.0

19.0

23.5

24.8

22.4

20.0

18.7

14.8

10.1

26.2

24.1

22.4

23.8

18.0

25.7

23.5

20.5

29.7

26.9

39.1

31.1

e

29.6

e

19.3

e

35.6

e

31.6

e

52.0

e

72.3

e

64.9

e

47.9

34.1

40.9

37.5

40.7

38.2

33.1

28.2

28.5

e

22.8

e

48.4

e

44.4

37.0

39.2

29.9

46.4

38.4

35.6

51.1

41.3

e

316.2

e

63.0

e

31.5

e

28.2

e

71.5

e

71.5

e

78.5

e

316.2

e

105.8

e

114.5

e

66.8

e

106.4

e

103.3

e

84.1

e

166.7

e

75.2

e

68.5

e

48.1

e

80.9

e

78.5

e

316.2

e

166.7

e

166.7

e

80.9

e

114.5

e

84.2

e

166.7

e

316.2

e

87.6

e

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-49

Table 3-14. Two-Day Average

a

per Capita

b

Estimates of Direct

c

Water Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition

Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Bottled (mL/kg-day) (Continued)

a

Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and

nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated

using

http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

b

Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.

c

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water, defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages, was not accounted

for in the estimation of bottled water intake.

d

Represents the percentage of individuals consuming at least once over the 2-day survey period.

e

Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III

and CSFII Reports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).

HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.

NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.

SE = Standard error.

Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005−2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-50

Table 3-15. Two-Day Average

a

per Capita

b

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

c

Water Ingestion Based on National

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Other Sources (mL/kg-day)

Population Group

Sample

Size

Percent

Consuming

d

Mean

SE

Percentiles

1

st

5

th

10

th

25

th

50

th

75

th

90

th

95

th

99

th

Max

All ages

Age group

Birth to <1 month

1 to <3 months

3 to <6 months

6 to <12 months

Birth to <1 year

1 to <2 years

2 to <3 years

3 to <6 years

6 to <11 years

11 to <16 years

16 to <21 years

21 to <30 years

30 to <40 years

40 to <50 years

50 to <60 years

60 to <70 years

70 to <80 years

80+ years

Birth to <2 years

2 to <16 years

16 to <70 years

21 to <50 years

50+ years

Race

Mexican American

Non-Hispanic black

Non-Hispanic white

Other Hispanic

Other race―including multiple

24,673

87

233

282

588

1,190

728

751

1,418

2,292

2,551

2,191

2,082

2,282

2,378

2,103

2,214

1,578

915

1,918

7,012

13,250

6,742

6,810

5,787

5,337

10,294

2,082

1,173

33

45

50

53

49

50

37

35

36

32

39

34

30

28

33

32

36

28

44

36

31

32

43

30

31

36

32

4.6

66.2

62.6

49.0

31.0

43.7

6.9

6.8

4.5

3.5

3.1

2.6

3.3

4.7

5.0

4.1

5.2

3.7

26.3

4.0

3.9

3.6

4.7

5.0

2.8

4.9

3.8

5.0

0.4

13.5

7.0

5.5

2.7

3.3

1.0

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.5

0.4

0.5

2.0

0.3

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.5

0.4

0.6

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

1.9

0

3.5

143.4

122.0

102.0

63.0

86.1

8.2

6.6

4.8

2.6

3.5

2.2

1.3

4.4

4.8

5.0

7.5

4.5

27.0

3.6

2.8

2.1

5.3

4.7

1.0

3.8

4.3

15.0

183.2

e

171.0

137.6

96.9

134.4

23.8

23.0

14.9

12.6

12.3

10.7

8.5

11.4

17.4

19.1

15.5

20.3

14.1

105.0

13.5

13.4

12.0

17.5

11.8

7.4

17.4

9.6

16.3

24.5

205.8

e

194.7

e

157.4

e

119.3

157.4

30.7

40.3

24.2

20.6

19.4

18.1

13.7

22.3

26.9

27.5

21.7

24.9

19.9

135.8

21.9

22.9

22.2

24.6

19.7

11.6

26.6

14.4

25.5

53.3

302.0

e

230.7

e

204.6

e

154.8

e

215.8

e

74.8

e

75.5

e

44.1

e

40.2

33.7

38.0

36.6

43.5

47.4

52.0

40.4

40.6

e

28.7

e

199.1

e

43.0

44.3

44.2

80.1

40.7

51.8

50.1

55.8

e

343.1

302.0

e

343.1

e

225.8

e

239.7

e

343.1

e

130.3

e

162.0

e

164.9

e

72.1

e

81.1

e

120.6

e

94.1

e

86.9

e

98.0

e

83.6

e

93.3

e

61.3

e

53.6

e

343.1

e

164.9

e

120.6

e

98.0

e

93.3

e

296.5

e

343.1

e

276.2

e

200.5

e

237.8

e

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-51

Table 3-15. Two-Day Average

a

per Capita

b

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

c

Water Ingestion Based on National

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Other Sources (mL/kg-day) (Continued)

a

Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and

nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated

using

http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

b

Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.

c

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages.

d

Represents the percentage of individuals consuming at least once over the 2-day survey period.

e

Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III

and CSFII Reports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).

HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.

NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.

SE = Standard error.

Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005−2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-52

Table 3-16. Two-Day Average

a

per Capita

b

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

c

Water Ingestion Based on National

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: All Sources (mL/kg-day)

Population Group

Sample

Size

Percent

Consuming

d

Mean

SE

Percentiles

1

st

5

th

10

th

25

th

50

th

75

th

90

th

95

th

99

th

Max

All ages

Age group

Birth to <1 month

1 to <3 months

3 to <6 months

6 to <12 months

Birth to <1 year

1 to <2 years

2 to <3 years

3 to <6 years

6 to <11 years

11 to <16 years

16 to <21 years

21 to <30 years

30 to <40 years

40 to <50 years

50 to <60 years

60 to <70 years

70 to <80 years

80+ years

Birth to <2 years

2 to <16 years

16 to <70 years

21 to <50 years

50+ years

Race

Mexican American

Non-Hispanic black

Non-Hispanic white

Other Hispanic

Other race―including multiple

24,673

87

233

282

588

1,190

728

751

1,418

2,292

2,551

2,191

2,082

2,282

2,378

2,103

2,214

1,578

915

1,918

7,012

13,250

6,742

6,810

5,787

5,337

10,294

2,082

1,173

99

78

70

83

98

87

98

99

98

97

98

99

100

99

100

92

98

99

100

99

98

99

20.2

109.8

89.2

77.2

64.8

75.5

26.4

29.1

22.6

18.4

13.5

14.9

19.1

20.4

21.1

21.0

19.3

18.1

16.5

52.2

18.2

19.7

20.2

19.5

19.6

16.2

20.7

20.0

23.8

0.3

13.4

5.3

4.3

2.4

2.7

1.1

1.2

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.7

0.5

0.6

0.5

0.4

1.9

0.4

0.3

0.4

0.3

0.4

0.7

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0

e

0.1

e

0

0.2

0.3

0.6

1.1

1.0

e

2.3

e

0

e

0

<0.05

0.1

0.8

0.1

0

0.3

e

2.0

0

e

0

e

0

e

2.6

0

1.5

3.1

2.6

1.6

0.5

0.4

1.5

2.7

2.8

2.7

4.3

4.1

4.5

0

1.1

2.2

2.3

3.7

2.1

1.4

2.0

2.7

3.4

4.2

0

e

0

7.5

0

4.5

5.7

4.8

3.5

1.5

1.9

3.5

4.7

5.3

5.5

6.1

6.3

6.2

1.5

3.0

4.5

4.6

5.8

3.9

2.9

4.5

4.1

5.6

9.1

10.6

0

12.3

26.6

21.1

13.1

11.5

10.0

8.1

5.2

5.4

7.9

9.9

10.4

10.9

10.6

9.9

9.7

14.8

7.3

9.5

9.6

10.5

8.1

6.4

9.7

8.3

11.4

16.4

129.9

108.2

86.3

66.1

74.8

22.0

23.0

18.7

14.9

10.5

11.7

15.9

16.9

18.4

18.3

16.9

16.5

14.8

31.4

13.9

16.9

17.1

14.7

12.3

17.3

14.6

19.1

26.4

178.8

140.4

116.9

96.2

113.3

34.2

41.2

31.1

24.8

17.8

20.3

25.0

28.5

28.1

28.3

25.4

23.1

22.0

80.1

24.7

26.8

27.5

25.6

24.2

20.7

27.3

25.5

30.2

39.3

206.5

e

187.7

143.3

122.6

149.4

53.5

59.3

44.0

35.8

28.5

32.3

39.6

40.7

39.8

38.7

35.3

32.0

28.1

127.2

38.4

38.7

39.9

35.7

38.0

31.5

40.0

39.0

45.9

49.1

253.0

e

203.9

e

164.9

e

138.2

183.2

69.4

71.3

53.6

46.9

38.3

40.8

49.0

47.8

48.1

46.4

41.8

40.2

32.5

152.4

49.1

46.4

48.3

43.4

50.5

40.2

49.1

51.3

56.2

83.3

302.0

e

267.2

e

215.8

e

167.6

e

237.8

e

86.2

e

95.3

e

85.9

e

70.1

61.9

53.2

67.3

65.0

72.3

72.7

56.5

56.9

e

47.6

e

213.9

e

74.1

67.4

68.4

65.3

108.1

86.6

79.8

112.0

96.5

e

343.1

e

302.0

e

343.1

e

252.6

e

239.7

e

343.1

e

216.4

e

316.2

e

164.9

e

157.7

e

81.9

e

120.6

e

112.0

e

95.0

e

178.8

e

122.9

e

120.7

e

80.8

e

91.8

e

343.1

e

316.2

e

178.8

e

178.8

e

122.9

e

296.5

e

343.1

e

284.4

e

316.2

e

237.8

e

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-53

Table 3-16. Two-Day Average

a

per Capita

b

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

c

Water Ingestion Based on National

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: All Sources (mL/kg-day) (Continued)

a

Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and

nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated

using

http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

b

Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.

c

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages. Does not include

indirect consumption of bottled water.

d

Represents the percentage of individuals consuming at least once over the 2-day survey period.

e

Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III

and CSFII Reports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).

HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.

NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.

SE = Standard error.

Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005−2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-54

Table 3-17. Two-Day Average

a

Consumer-Only

b

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

c

Water Ingestion Based on National

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Community Water (mL/day)

Population Group

Sample Size

Mean

SE

Percentiles

1

st

5

th

10

th

25

th

50

th

75

th

90

th

95

th

99

th

Max

All ages

Age group

Birth to <1 month

1 to <3 months

3 to <6 months

6 to <12 months

Birth to <1 year

1 to <2 years

2 to <3 years

3 to <6 years

6 to <11 years

11 to <16 years

16 to <21 years

21 to <30 years

30 to <40 years

40 to <50 years

50 to <60 years

60 to <70 years

70 to <80 years

80+ years

Birth to <2 years

2 to <16 years

16 to <70 years

21 to <50 years

50+ years

Race

Mexican American

Non-Hispanic black

Non-Hispanic white

Other Hispanic

Other race―including multiple

15,219

20

45

65

244

374

394

445

860

1,473

1,449

1,312

1,318

1,530

1,532

1,412

1,453

1,017

650

768

4,227

8,557

4,380

4,532

3,011

3,560

6,698

1,207

743

1,096

581

785

649

554

595

245

332

338

455

562

722

1,183

1,277

1,356

1,419

1,394

1,214

1,087

388

458

1,269

1,277

1,343

794

782

1,201

914

1,085

21

84

47

55

31

25

15

20

38

27

52

37

50

37

43

31

30

18

19

25

31

27

31

27

25

52

67

13

15

d

105

d

7

d

12

d

7

d

7

d

6

d

7

d

6

d

7

d

6

d

11

d

24

d

18

d

35

d

63

d

129

d

62

d

7

d

6

15

17

53

4

7

15

17

d

20

d

70

25

d

148

d

96

d

37

d

40

d

15

43

33

39

31

29

59

115

129

151

213

321

250

15

34

103

97

216

52

38

84

74

89

147

40

d

489

d

144

d

69

98

28

59

71

73

68

66

136

223

281

334

370

405

359

40

68

205

202

363

106

89

172

119

172

369

148

d

658

d

450

d

201

277

85

126

139

176

160

199

377

508

593

669

710

689

586

134

156

503

497

677

244

247

450

284

410

834

699

804

655

587

657

209

254

274

356

361

442

877

1,010

1,083

1,200

1,214

1,088

990

281

324

1,024

1,001

1,152

530

519

965

619

789

1,540

839

d

958

d

887

d

823

851

306

430

477

580

726

1,026

1,628

1,789

1,911

1,923

1,890

1,559

1,445

641

592

1,784

1,818

1,783

1,063

1,054

1,695

1,195

1,532

2,413

901

d

1,177

d

1,037

d

993

1,009

524

733

683

953

1,315

1,647

2,645

2,720

2,708

2,815

2,602

2,118

1,964

864

985

2,645

2,685

2,574

1,814

1,819

2,558

2,125

2,246

2,972

938

d

1,224

d

1,125

d

1,104

d

1,106

d

658

901

836

1,258

1,761

2,214

3,407

3,278

3,374

3,388

3,187

2,641

2,250

999

1,348

3,250

3,353

3,081

2,485

2,378

3,081

2,848

2,990

4,463

1,037

d

1,403

d

1,388

d

1,324

d

1,376

d

842

d

1,183

d

1,282

d

2,277

d

2,773

d

3,237

d

5,271

d

4,584

d

4,776

d

4,626

d

4,123

d

3,601

d

3,180

d

1,288

d

2,559

4,773

4,859

4,309

4,116

4,031

4,570

4,584

d

5,143

d

8,634

d

1,037

d

1,403

d

1,390

d

1,797

d

1,797

d

2,619

d

2,861

d

2,179

d

4,048

d

5,120

d

7,184

d

7,504

d

7,402

d

7,041

d

6,554

d

8,634

d

4,975

d

5,334

d

2,619

d

5,120

d

8,634

d

7,504

d

8,634

d

7,504

d

7,402

d

8,634

d

7,184

d

7,018

d

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-55

Table 3-17. Two-Day Average

a

Consumer-Only

b

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

c

Water Ingestion Based on National

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Community Water (mL/day) (Continued)

a

Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and

nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated

using

http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

b

Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.

c

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages.

d

Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III

and CSFII Reports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).

HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.

NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.

SE = Standard error.

Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005−2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-56

Table 3-18. Two-Day Average

a

Consumer-Only

b

Estimates of Direct

c

Water Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition

Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Bottled Water (mL/day)

Population Group

Sample Size

Mean

SE

Percentiles

1

st

5

th

10

th

25

th

50

th

75

th

90

th

95

th

99

th

Max

All ages

Age group

Birth to <1 month

1 to <3 months

3 to <6 months

6 to <12 months

Birth to <1 year

1 to <2 years

2 to <3 years

3 to <6 years

6 to <11 years

11 to <16 years

16 to <21 years

21 to <30 years

30 to <40 years

40 to <50 years

50 to <60 years

60 to <70 years

70 to <80 years

80+ years

Birth to <2 years

2 to <16 years

16 to <70 years

21 to <50 years

50+ years

Race

Mexican American

Non-Hispanic black

Non-Hispanic white

Other Hispanic

Other race―including multiple

11,309

16

38

79

228

361

317

332

617

1,036

1,236

1,111

1,125

1,244

1,240

991

1,008

507

184

678

3,221

6,719

3,609

2,690

3,349

2,598

3,681

1,120

561

736

38

66

61

109

93

188

273

299

374

517

753

882

903

860

818

713

644

577

149

410

839

881

748

717

757

732

793

713

15

17

15

6

9

7

15

26

19

18

26

37

34

36

33

31

34

53

11

13

18

22

19

27

28

18

44

39

37

3

d

1

d

4

d

7

d

3

d

7

d

15

d

22

d

37

d

37

d

96

d

59

d

52

d

44

d

59

d

59

d

22

d

15

d

3

d

30

59

52

44

30

40

37

30

d

30

d

89

3

d

3

d

15

d

15

d

7

d

30

d

40

d

52

59

89

148

125

119

118

82

52

d

15

59

119

96

74

89

74

119

3

d

5

d

15

d

30

15

44

52

59

89

119

193

178

126

119

82

d

30

83

178

133

119

125

119

148

250

3

d

15

d

30

44

30

74

119

148

237

296

259

296

250

237

178

48

156

296

250

237

250

237

250

500

30

44

89

59

133

193

215

250

356

555

694

681

605

593

509

444

385

111

280

606

652

518

487

500

509

984

44

d

119

d

89

133

119

266

333

385

466

635

992

1,244

1,228

1,184

1,067

987

918

770

178

500

1,138

1,185

1,000

975

1,000

974

1,067

947

1,666

104

d

178

d

119

d

244

207

415

548

622

770

1,184

1,500

1,816

1,935

1,896

1,600

1,422

1,225

d

314

859

1,837

1,896

1,697

1,658

1,685

1,658

1,895

1,593

2,133

155

d

192

d

133

d

281

d

252

d

578

d

711

d

830

1,067

1,600

1,995

2,354

2,481

2,368

2,250

1,948

1,894

1,822

d

474

1,250

2,254

2,370

2,137

2,004

2,281

2,081

2,495

2,039

3,435

296

d

192

d

178

d

474

d

385

d

711

d

1,341

d

1,666

d

2,001

d

2,276

d

3,140

d

3,672

d

4,001

d

3,895

d

3,826

d

2,714

d

2,664

d

2,844

d

711

d

2,132

3,750

3,895

3,111

3,256

3,986

3,507

3,254

d

2,844

d

8,834

d

296

d

192

d

178

d

680

d

680

d

790

d

4,205

d

1,762

d

4,717

d

4,322

d

5,810

d

7,673

d

6,636

d

8,834

d

4,513

d

5,024

d

3,228

d

6,213

d

790

d

4,717

d

8,834

d

8,834

d

6,213

d

6,213

d

6,634

d

8,834

d

7,673

d

4,717

d

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-57

Table 3-18. Two-Day Average

a

Consumer-Only

b

Estimates of Direct

c

Water Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition

Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Bottled Water (mL/day) (Continued)

a

Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and

nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated

using

http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

b

Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.

c

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water, defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages, was not accounted

for in the estimation of bottled water intake.

d

Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III

and CSFII Reports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).

HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.

NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.

SE = Standard error.

Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005−2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-58

Table 3-19. Two-Day Average

a

Consumer-Only

b

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

c

Water Ingestion Based on National

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Other Sources (mL/day)

Population Group

Sample Size

Mean

SE

Percentiles

1

st

5

th

10

th

25

th

50

th

75

th

90

th

95

th

99

th

Max

All ages

Age group

Birth to <1 month

1 to <3 months

3 to <6 months

6 to <12 months

Birth to <1 year

1 to <2 years

2 to <3 years

3 to <6 years

6 to <11 years

11 to <16 years

16 to <21 years

21 to <30 years

30 to <40 years

40 to <50 years

50 to <60 years

60 to <70 years

70 to <80 years

80+ years

Birth to <2 years

2 to <16 years

16 to <70 years

21 to <50 years

50+ years

Race

Mexican American

Non-Hispanic black

Non-Hispanic white

Other Hispanic

Other race―including multiple

8,722

47

134

175

328

684

310

282

525

755

994

760

682

708

805

666

742

546

263

994

2,556

4,363

2,195

2,217

2,620

1,570

3,307

827

398

833

611

704

665

564

619

209

268

231

331

513

632

640

937

1,117

1,260

1,042

1,116

900

454

380

969

919

1,138

467

429

1,010

460

781

39

37

26

35

22

15

19

28

14

28

32

69

70

77

75

82

57

38

37

16

18

49

63

41

18

21

49

27

62

8

153

d

14

d

5

d

1

d

5

d

2

d

2

d

6

d

8

d

6

d

12

d

7

d

7

d

17

d

9

d

29

d

22

d

59

d

5

d

6

10

9

22

4

d

10

9

d

18

d

35

269

d

161

d

15

d

17

d

19

12

d

14

d

17

28

17

24

30

38

52

139

126

117

196

d

15

20

43

37

132

26

17

43

38

54

70

288

d

296

d

62

d

51

74

28

17

27

42

40

49

50

94

119

207

214

257

282

44

39

93

80

230

52

34

89

75

89

214

455

d

551

433

268

402

80

72

69

95

115

135

160

256

390

498

434

506

533

124

93

284

252

486

133

97

293

144

304

550

638

710

729

590

668

144

178

138

241

328

381

404

574

785

928

836

996

808

392

228

654

595

883

308

292

733

332

516

1,105

720

d

856

887

807

839

286

363

282

481

705

851

766

1,258

1,535

1,718

1,335

1,570

1,118

725

515

1,289

1,229

1,501

596

568

1,368

637

1,020

1,976

912

d

1,055

d

1,154

d

1,048

1,049

472

630

532

764

1,181

1,583

1,428

2,510

2,414

2,820

2,155

2,247

1,635

924

917

2,297

2,238

2,321

993

896

2,303

944

1,772

2,682

923

d

1,122

d

1,250

d

1,182

d

1,154

642

d

887

d

721

948

1,526

2,297

2,445

3,004

3,330

3,726

2,800

2,443

1,836

d

1,102

1,165

2,969

2,901

2,958

1,348

1,255

2,913

1,210

2,204

4,113

994

d

1,184

d

1,396

d

1,359

d

1,391

d

917

d

1,161

d

1,141

d

1,290

d

2,885

d

3,209

d

3,750

d

4,248

d

4,696

d

5,339

d

4,160

d

3,210

d

2,330

d

1,359

d

2,347

4,335

4,310

4,645

3,132

2,663

d

4,310

2,652

d

3,725

d

8,398

d

1,011

d

1,489

d

1,424

d

1,486

d

1,489

d

1,485

d

2,284

d

4,698

d

2,437

d

3,911

d

7,815

d

8,127

d

7,459

d

8,398

d

7,600

d

7,447

d

5,316

d

3,917

d

1,489

d

4,698

d

8,398

d

8,398

d

7,600

d

5,036

d

4,911

d

8,398

d

3,680

d

4,562

d

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-59

Table 3-19. Two-Day Average

a

Consumer-Only

b

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

c

Water Ingestion Based on National

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Other Sources (mL/day) (Continued)

a

Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and

nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated

using

http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

b

Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.

c

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages.

d

Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III

and CSFII Reports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).

HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.

NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.

SE = Standard error.

Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005−2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-60

Table 3-20. Two-Day Average

a

Consumer-Only

b

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

c

Water Ingestion Based on National

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: All Sources (mL/day)

Population Group

Sample Size

Mean

SE

Percentiles

1

st

5

th

10

th

25

th

50

th

75

th

90

th

95

th

99

th

Max

All ages

Age group

Birth to <1 month

1 to <3 months

3 to <6 months

6 to <12 months

Birth to <1 year

1 to <2 years

2 to <3 years

3 to <6 years

6 to <11 years

11 to <16 years

16 to <21 years

21 to <30 years

30 to <40 years

40 to <50 years

50 to <60 years

60 to <70 years

70 to <80 years

80+ years

Birth to <2 years

2 to <16 years

16 to <70 years

21 to <50 years

50+ years

Race

Mexican American

Non-Hispanic black

Non-Hispanic white

Other Hispanic

Other race―including multiple

24,299

68

182

243

577

1,070

714

741

1,405

2,263

2,504

2,129

2,052

2,262

2,369

2,095

2,211

1,570

914

1,784

6,913

13,118

6,683

6,790

5,725

5,246

10,116

2,058

1,154

1,325

597

725

666

590

628

300

408

416

565

767

1,068

1,459

1,642

1,688

1,705

1,552

1,367

1,142

464

597

1,564

1,604

1,545

1,070

1,052

1,422

1,178

1,332

20

47

27

28

20

15

12

17

12

17

30

36

48

40

46

38

37

29

26

12

15

25

33

25

27

25

26

44

48

29

30

d

14

d

5

d

7

d

7

d

7

d

14

d

13

d

12

14

31

46

48

69

118

159

d

170

d

7

d

12

43

40

115

22

29

33

53

d

130

40

d

148

d

15

d

44

37

53

54

61

59

89

168

247

269

262

370

377

318

40

57

220

229

327

108

106

141

119

178

247

87

d

261

d

125

84

121

59

78

92

123

119

198

310

400

450

490

531

496

429

74

109

370

382

496

195

192

274

202

283

544

434

d

590

449

276

373

149

166

187

250

317

399

635

798

874

919

893

845

698

193

241

770

767

859

396

414

615

442

580

1,076

685

734

714

629

671

250

330

339

476

597

907

1,229

1,407

1,478

1,509

1,366

1,275

1,007

374

465

1,347

1,380

1,357

813

809

1,207

897

1,124

1,843

781

d

902

894

847

864

378

563

569

754

1,016

1,487

1,953

2,261

2,275

2,247

2,082

1,735

1,493

725

775

2,121

2,183

2,018

1,463

1,419

1,974

1,610

1,834

2,715

924

d

1,090

d

1,122

1,032

1,058

633

837

818

1,110

1,590

2,218

2,894

3,149

3,156

3,065

2,752

2,366

1,953

917

1,213

2,972

3,092

2,798

2,250

2,261

2,837

2,538

2,656

3,306

953

d

1,154

d

1,251

d

1,182

1,177

768

1,001

993

1,389

2,248

2,808

3,606

3,859

3,837

3,925

3,205

2,748

2,296

1,070

1,589

3,643

3,780

3,363

2,876

2,804

3,421

3,307

3,278

4,773

1,144

d

1,390

d

1,391

d

1,383

d

1,390

d

934

d

1,317

d

1,495

d

2,305

3,402

3,792

5,271

5,135

5,091

5,349

4,160

3,619

d

3,236

d

1,359

d

2,773

5,135

5,167

4,689

4,490

4,393

4,865

4,584

4,397

d

10,280

d

1,234

d

1,489

d

1,456

d

1,797

d

1,797

d

2,619

d

4,205

d

4,698

d

5,473

d

5,120

d

7,815

d

8,325

d

7,459

d

10,280

d

7,600

d

8,634

d

5,316

d

7,054

d

2,619

d

5,473

d

10,280

d

10,280

d

8,634

d

7,504

d

7,519

d

10,280

d

8,325

d

7,018

d

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-61

Table 3-20. Two-Day Average

a

Consumer-Only

b

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

c

Water Ingestion Based on National

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: All Sources (mL/day) (Continued)

a

Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and

nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated

using

http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

b

Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.

c

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages. Does not include

indirect consumption of bottled water.

d

Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III

and CSFII Reports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).

HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.

NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.

SE = Standard error.

Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005−2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-62

Table 3-21. Two-Day Average

a

Consumer-Only

b

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

c

Water Ingestion Based on National

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Community Water (mL/kg-day)

Population Group

Sample Size

Mean

SE

Percentiles

1

st

5

th

10

th

25

th

50

th

75

th

90

th

95

th

99

th

Max

All ages

Age group

Birth to <1 month

1 to <3 months

3 to <6 months

6 to <12 months

Birth to <1 year

1 to <2 years

2 to <3 years

3 to <6 years

6 to <11 years

11 to <16 years

16 to <21 years

21 to <30 years

30 to <40 years

40 to <50 years

50 to <60 years

60 to <70 years

70 to <80 years

80+ years

Birth to <2 years

2 to <16 years

16 to <70 years

21 to <50 years

50+ years

Race

Mexican American

Non-Hispanic black

Non-Hispanic white

Other Hispanic

Other race―including multiple

15,219

20

45

65

244

374

394

445

860

1,473

1,449

1,312

1,318

1,530

1,532

1,412

1,453

1,017

650

768

4,227

8,557

4,380

4,532

3,011

3,560

6,698

1,207

743

16.6

132.8

136.4

92.9

62.3

79.0

22.1

23.9

18.7

15.2

10.4

10.2

15.9

15.8

17.2

17.6

17.3

16.3

15.6

45.4

14.9

16.1

16.3

17.1

13.6

12.0

17.6

14.6

19.1

0.3

20.0

8.6

8.5

3.7

4.2

1.4

1.1

0.8

0.7

0.8

0.4

0.8

0.5

0.6

0.5

0.6

0.5

2.5

0.4

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.4

0.5

1.0

0.2

3.5

d

22.3

d

1.0

d

1.2

d

1.0

d

0.6

d

0.4

d

0.3

d

0.2

d

0.1

d

0.1

d

0.1

d

0.3

d

0.2

d

0.3

d

0.6

d

1.3

d

1.2

d

0.7

d

0.2

0.6

0.1

0.3

0.4

d

0.3

d

1.2

4.4

d

26.4

d

12.0

d

4.4

d

4.8

d

1.4

3.1

1.7

1.2

0.5

0.3

0.7

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.5

3.7

3.6

1.5

1.0

1.2

2.5

1.2

0.6

1.5

1.4

1.8

2.6

11.2

d

72.9

d

22.8

d

7.8

10.6

2.3

4.0

2.5

1.1

0.9

1.7

2.8

3.1

3.8

4.5

5.2

3.7

1.9

2.6

4.4

2.1

1.5

3.0

2.3

3.5

6.3

21.1

d

111.6

d

64.4

d

23.0

33.5

7.9

9.2

7.5

5.6

2.9

2.8

5.2

6.2

7.2

8.2

8.7

8.4

8.1

12.7

4.9

6.3

6.2

8.4

4.5

3.7

7.2

5.7

7.8

12.8

151.9

134.0

91.0

63.9

78.5

18.5

17.5

14.4

11.5

6.8

6.2

11.7

12.4

13.5

14.9

14.8

14.2

14.1

25.1

10.7

12.9

12.5

14.7

9.4

8.3

14.2

10.8

14.7

22.1

190.5

d

163.7

d

116.8

d

96.2

111.6

28.7

32.7

26.2

20.3

13.1

14.9

21.5

22.2

23.5

24.1

22.9

20.9

21.2

69.4

20.0

22.3

22.6

22.8

17.4

15.5

23.7

18.5

24.5

33.8

219.7

d

192.2

d

143.3

d

113.3

142.7

48.7

51.4

38.8

31.3

24.7

24.6

34.4

33.4

35.6

34.4

33.3

28.7

28.1

112.9

32.6

33.5

34.7

32.5

28.7

25.8

35.1

29.8

38.0

43.9

224.0

d

267.2

d

158.4

d

133.0

d

174.0

d

57.3

66.6

45.2

40.8

31.1

46.9

43.6

43.3

41.8

39.8

37.0

32.7

139.6

44.0

42.5

43.9

39.6

38.9

33.5

45.1

41.0

51.3

71.1

253.0

d

267.5

d

252.6

d

167.6

d

252.6

d

84.5

d

83.3

d

67.3

d

69.5

d

62.2

d

50.5

d

67.1

d

58.7

d

64.8

d

65.3

d

55.4

d

59.4

d

45.7

d

193.2

d

70.3

64.1

64.8

58.0

73.1

61.0

69.8

65.8

d

84.7

d

267.5

d

253.0

d

267.5

d

252.6

d

213.9

d

267.5

d

216.4

d

227.1

d

126.6

d

157.4

d

81.9

d

82.0

d

99.9

d

91.9

d

110.1

d

103.4

d

120.7

d

80.8

d

64.8

d

267.5

d

227.1

d

120.7

d

110.1

d

120.7

d

244.4

d

267.5

d

252.6

d

224.0

d

227.1

d

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-63

Table 3-21. Two-Day Average

a

Consumer-Only

b

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

c

Water Ingestion Based on National

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Community Water (mL/kg-day) (Continued)

a

Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and

nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated

using

http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

b

Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.

c

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages.

d

Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III

and CSFII Reports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).

HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.

NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.

SE = Standard error.

Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005−2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-64

Table 3-22. Two-Day Average

a

Consumer-Only

b

Estimates of Direct

c

Water Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition

Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Bottled Water (mL/kg-day)

Population Group

Sample Size

Mean

SE

Percentiles

1

st

5

th

10

th

25

th

50

th

75

th

90

th

95

th

99

th

Max

All ages

Age group

Birth to <1 month

1 to <3 months

3 to <6 months

6 to <12 months

Birth to <1 year

1 to <2 years

2 to <3 years

3 to <6 years

6 to <11 years

11 to <16 years

16 to <21 years

21 to <30 years

30 to <40 years

40 to <50 years

50 to <60 years

60 to <70 years

70 to <80 years

80+ years

Birth to <2 years

2 to <16 years

16 to <70 years

21 to <50 years

50+ years

Race

Mexican American

Non-Hispanic black

Non-Hispanic white

Other Hispanic

Other race―including multiple

11,309

16

38

79

228

361

317

332

617

1,036

1,236

1,111

1,125

1,244

1,240

991

1,008

507

184

678

3,221

6,719

3,609

2,690

3,349

2,598

3,681

1,120

561

11.0

8.4

11.1

8.3

11.8

11.0

16.8

19.7

16.5

12.0

9.2

11.1

11.5

11.3

10.7

9.9

8.9

8.5

8.4

14.4

12.3

10.7

11.2

9.3

12.0

10.6

10.5

13.1

12.2

0.2

3.6

2.4

0.8

1.0

0.7

1.2

1.9

1.0

0.5

0.4

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.5

0.8

0.9

0.4

0.3

0.8

0.6

0.7

d

0.2

d

0.5

d

0.9

d

0.4

d

0.7

d

1.0

d

1.2

d

1.1

d

0.6

d

1.3

d

1.0

d

0.7

d

0.7

d

0.7

d

0.9

d

0.3

d

0.2

d

0.7

d

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.9

0.8

0.7

1.1

d

0.7

d

1.6

0.7

d

0.4

d

2.2

d

1.9

d

1.4

d

3.1

d

3.1

d

2.7

2.2

1.4

2.1

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.3

1.1

0.9

d

2.2

1.9

1.6

1.2

1.7

1.5

1.7

2.0

2.2

0.7

d

0.9

d

2.2

d

2.8

2.2

3.8

3.6

2.8

2.4

2.7

2.3

2.2

2.1

1.9

1.8

1.4

1.0

d

3.1

2.8

2.2

1.8

2.4

2.3

2.1

2.2

2.8

3.8

0.7

d

2.4

d

3.7

4.8

4.2

6.0

5.3

6.1

4.7

4.0

4.2

3.8

3.4

3.3

3.1

2.9

2.4

5.2

4.5

3.7

3.8

3.1

4.5

3.8

3.6

4.3

4.5

7.8

5.6

6.7

6.6

9.2

8.1

12.7

13.8

10.9

8.7

6.7

8.3

8.8

8.4

7.9

7.3

6.3

5.9

6.2

10.6

8.3

7.8

8.3

6.6

9.1

7.6

7.5

8.6

9.3

14.5

10.8

d

18.8

d

12.3

14.7

14.1

24.1

23.4

21.3

14.8

11.6

15.0

15.6

15.1

14.2

13.3

12.5

11.9

11.1

19.8

15.5

14.4

15.0

12.8

15.8

14.1

14.0

17.0

16.7

23.4

22.5

d

29.6

d

16.0

d

25.2

39.5

41.3

37.0

24.5

20.0

23.4

24.5

24.2

22.6

21.4

20.3

19.9

17.6

d

31.6

25.8

22.7

23.7

20.9

24.3

23.3

22.3

29.1

27.7

30.3

31.1

d

30.6

d

19.3

d

32.3

d

30.6

d

48.4

d

52.1

d

43.7

34.4

25.4

29.6

30.4

33.2

29.6

28.2

23.3

25.8

23.0

d

40.9

35.7

29.0

31.0

26.2

31.7

29.6

29.0

36.6

31.4

50.3

63.0

d

31.5

d

26.1

d

46.9

d

46.9

d

66.7

d

96.9

d

83.4

d

61.5

d

35.8

d

50.1

d

45.5

d

49.4

d

45.8

d

46.0

d

37.0

d

30.8

d

45.4

d

54.1

d

61.5

46.0

46.4

42.3

55.1

47.9

48.5

69.4

d

43.7

d

316.2

d

63.0

d

31.5

d

28.2

d

71.5

d

71.5

d

78.5

d

316.2

d

105.8

d

114.5

d

66.8

d

106.4

d

103.3

d

84.1

d

166.7

d

75.2

d

65.8

d

48.1

d

80.9

d

78.5

d

316.2

d

166.7

d

166.7

d

80.9

d

114.5

d

84.2

d

166.7

d

316.2

d

87.6

d

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-65

Table 3-22. Two-Day Average

a

Consumer-Only

b

Estimates of Direct

c

Water Ingestion Based on National Health and Nutrition

Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Bottled Water (mL/kg-day) (Continued)

a

Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and

nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated

using

http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

b

Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.

c

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water, defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages, was not accounted

for in the estimation of bottled water intake.

d

Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III

and CSFII Reports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).

HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.

NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.

SE = Standard error.

Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005−2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-66

Table 3-23. Two-Day Average

a

Consumer-Only

b

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

c

Water Ingestion Based on National

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Other Sources (mL/kg-day)

Population Group

Sample

Size

Mean

SE

Percentiles

1

st

5

th

10

th

25

th

50

th

75

th

90

th

95

th

99

th

Max

All ages

Age group

Birth to <1 month

1 to <3 months

3 to <6 months

6 to <12 months

Birth to <1 year

1 to <2 years

2 to <3 years

3 to <6 years

6 to <11 years

11 to <16 years

16 to <21 years

21 to <30 years

30 to <40 years

40 to <50 years

50 to <60 years

60 to <70 years

70 to <80 years

80+ years

Birth to <2 years

2 to <16 years

16 to <70 years

21 to <50 years

50+ years

Race

Mexican American

Non-Hispanic black

Non-Hispanic white

Other Hispanic

Other Race―including multiple

8,722

47

134

175

328

684

310

282

525

755

994

760

682

708

805

666

742

546

263

994

2,556

4,363

2,195

2,217

2,620

1,570

3,307

827

398

14.1

147.9

125.5

91.9

63.8

88.0

18.6

19.6

12.3

11.2

8.9

9.1

8.6

11.8

14.0

15.7

13.0

14.7

13.2

60.1

11.1

12.3

11.7

14.5

11.6

9.5

15.6

10.6

15.7

0.5

12.5

5.2

2.8

3.2

1.8

2.1

0.8

1.0

0.5

0.9

1.0

0.8

0.5

2.9

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

1.0

0.1

34.9

d

5.2

d

0.6

d

0.1

d

0.6

d

0.2

d

0.2

d

0.3

d

0.3

d

0.1

d

0.1

d

0.1

d

0.1

d

0.2

d

0.1

d

0.3

d

0.2

d

0.8

d

0.5

d

0.1

0.2

0.1

d

0.2

d

0.2

d

0.6

51.6

d

26.9

d

1.9

d

1.8

d

2.6

1.1

d

1.1

d

1.1

0.9

0.3

0.4

0.3

0.4

0.6

1.8

1.5

1.3

2.6

d

1.8

0.6

0.5

1.6

0.6

0.3

0.7

0.6

1.3

66.5

d

54.7

d

8.9

d

6.1

8.4

2.7

1.5

1.7

1.5

0.7

0.6

1.1

1.6

2.8

2.7

3.2

4.5

3.9

1.2

1.3

1.0

2.8

1.1

0.5

1.6

1.3

2.5

3.8

99.0

d

102.0

54.8

29.0

49.2

5.9

5.3

3.9

3.2

2.0

3.0

4.4

5.6

5.5

6.5

7.5

11.6

3.0

3.6

3.1

5.7

2.7

1.7

4.7

3.2

4.8

8.8

148.4

122.0

98.5

63.8

86.5

13.4

12.7

8.1

7.6

5.9

5.5

7.4

10.0

11.0

19.7

12.6

40.2

7.6

8.4

7.8

11.2

5.7

4.5

11.1

6.1

9.4

17.8

183.2

d

154.2

123.3

89.7

120.9

24.2

26.1

15.9

15.1

12.4

12.5

10.9

16.0

20.1

21.7

17.6

21.0

16.2

99.0

14.9

16.9

16.0

20.0

11.3

9.3

20.8

10.2

20.6

30.3

205.8

d

194.7

d

157.4

d

119.3

157.4

39.4

48.2

26.1

25.3

21.7

22.9

21.1

30.3

31.1

32.9

25.7

28.8

24.3

140.4

25.2

28.8

28.5

29.8

22.1

15.6

33.0

19.7

29.2

42.9

296.5

d

218.4

d

176.3

d

140.8

d

188.3

58.4

d

63.5

d

33.9

35.9

27.0

30.0

30.5

37.5

41.6

44.3

35.5

33.3

28.1

d

163.9

34.9

37.8

36.9

38.4

38.9

27.7

44.3

30.7

44.4

99.4

302.0

d

237.8

d

215.8

d

167.2

d

237.8

d

77.0

d

81.9

d

67.2

d

53.6

d

45.7

d

45.2

d

48.3

d

55.0

d

56.7

d

72.7

d

55.0

d

46.8

d

34.9

d

218.4

d

58.3

55.4

54.9

60.6

127.0

135.1

d

86.3

119.8

d

115.8

d

343.1

302.0

d

343.1

d

225.8

d

239.7

d

343.1

d

130.3

d

162.0

d

164.9

d

72.1

d

81.1

d

120.6

d

94.1

d

86.9

d

98.0

d

83.6

d

93.3

d

61.3

d

53.6

d

343.1

d

164.9

d

120.6

d

98.0

d

93.3

d

296.5

d

343.1

d

276.2

d

200.5

d

237.8

d

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-67

Table 3-23. Two-Day Average

a

Consumer-Only

b

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

c

Water Ingestion Based on National

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: Other Sources (mL/kg-day) (Continued)

a

Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and

nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated

using

http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

b

Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.

c

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages.

d

Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III

and CSFII Reports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).

HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.

NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.

SE = Standard error.

Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005−2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-68

Table 3-24. Two-Day Average

a

Consumer-Only

b

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

c

Water Ingestion Based on National

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: All Sources (mL/kg-day)

Population Group

Sample

Size

Mean

SE

Percentiles

1

st

5

th

10

th

25

th

50

th

75

th

90

th

95

th

99

th

Max

All ages

Age group

Birth to <1 month

1 to <3 months

3 to <6 months

6 to <12 months

Birth to <1 year

1 to <2 years

2 to <3 years

3 to <6 years

6 to <11 years

11 to <16 years

16 to <21 years

21 to <30 years

30 to <40 years

40 to <50 years

50 to <60 years

60 to <70 years

70 to <80 years

80+ years

Birth to <2 years

2 to <16 years

16 to <70 years

21 to <50 years

50+ years

Race

Mexican American

Non-Hispanic black

Non-Hispanic white

Other Hispanic

Other race―including multiple

24,299

68

182

243

577

1,070

714

741

1,405

2,263

2,504

2,129

2,052

2,262

2,369

2,095

2,211

1,570

914

1,784

6,913

13,118

6,683

6,790

5,725

5,246

10,116

2,058

1,154

20.5

141.3

128.3

93.1

66.5

86.4

27.0

29.4

22.8

18.7

13.8

15.4

19.4

20.5

21.2

21.1

19.3

18.2

16.5

56.6

18.6

19.9

20.4

19.6

19.7

16.5

21.0

20.3

23.9

0.3

12.6

5.0

4.1

2.3

2.7

1.1

1.2

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.7

0.5

0.6

0.5

0.4

1.8

0.4

0.3

0.4

0.3

0.4

0.7

0.6

5.6

d

2.4

d

0.6

d

0.8

d

0.8

d

0.7

d

0.9

d

0.7

d

0.4

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.3

2.0

d

2.3

d

0.7

d

0.3

0.6

1.2

0.4

0.3

0.6

1.0

d

2.6

11.2

d

23.8

d

1.9

d

5.7

3.4

3.8

3.0

2.3

1.0

1.3

2.1

3.0

2.9

3.0

4.4

4.3

4.5

4.0

1.7

2.7

3.8

2.3

1.9

2.8

3.0

3.8

4.6

20.8

d

50.1

d

15.6

10.9

14.4

5.4

6.0

5.1

4.0

2.1

2.7

4.0

5.0

5.5

5.6

6.2

6.5

6.2

7.0

3.5

4.8

4.9

6.0

4.0

3.2

5.0

4.3

5.9

9.3

95.0

d

103.9

60.9

29.1

43.7

14.2

12.0

10.1

8.4

5.6

5.9

8.3

10.0

10.5

11.1

10.6

10.1

9.7

18.0

7.7

9.7

10.6

8.2

6.7

10.0

8.7

11.7

16.6

149.0

124.7

96.6

67.2

85.0

22.4

23.6

18.8

15.2

10.8

12.6

16.3

16.9

18.5

18.4

17.0

16.5

14.8

36.4

14.2

17.0

17.3

17.2

14.7

12.5

17.6

14.7

19.2

26.6

190.5

d

163.7

121.3

96.5

118.4

34.4

41.7

31.1

25.2

17.9

20.9

25.4

28.5

28.1

28.4

25.4

23.2

22.0

86.3

24.9

26.9

27.7

25.6

24.3

20.8

27.5

25.6

30.2

39.5

224.0

d

198.6

d

157.3

123.8

156.8

54.1

60.2

44.2

36.2

28.7

32.7

39.7

40.9

39.9

38.8

35.3

32.1

28.1

131.2

38.7

38.8

40.0

35.7

38.2

31.7

40.2

39.3

45.9

49.5

262.6

d

218.4

d

173.6

d

139.1

188.9

69.4

71.6

53.8

47.6

38.4

41.0

49.0

47.9

48.1

46.6

41.8

40.2

32.5

157.3

49.3

46.6

48.4

43.4

50.6

40.2

49.6

51.5

56.2

84.0

302.0

d

267.5

d

225.8

d

167.6

d

239.7

d

90.1

d

95.3

d

85.9

d

70.9

61.9

53.3

67.3

65.0

72.3

72.7

56.5

56.9

d

47.6

d

215.8

d

74.6

67.9

68.4

65.3

108.4

88.4

80.3

112.0

96.5

d

343.1

d

302.0

d

343.1

d

252.6

d

239.7

d

343.1

d

216.4

d

316.2

d

164.9

d

157.7

d

81.9

d

120.6

d

112.0

d

95.0

d

178.8

d

122.9

d

120.7

d

80.8

d

91.8

d

343.1

d

316.2

d

178.8

d

178.8

d

122.9

d

296.5

d

343.1

d

284.4

d

316.2

d

237.8

d

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-69

Table 3-24. Two-Day Average

a

Consumer-Only

b

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

c

Water Ingestion Based on National

Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005−2010: All Sources (mL/kg-day) (Continued)

a

Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and

nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated

using

http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

b

Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.

c

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the preparation of food or beverages. Does not include

indirect consumption of bottled water.

d

Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III

and CSFII Reports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).

HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.

NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics.

SE = Standard error.

Source: U.S. EPA analysis of NHANES 2005−2010 data using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-70

Table 3-25. Intake Rates of Total Fluids and Total Tap Water by Age Group

Average Daily Consumption Rate (L/day)

Age Group

Total Fluids

a

Total Tap Water

b

6 to 11 months

2 years

14 to 16 years

25 to 30 years

60 to 65 years

0.80

0.99

1.47

1.76

1.63

0.20

0.50

0.72

1.04

1.26

a

Includes milk, “ready-to-use” formula, milk-based soup, carbonated soda, alcoholic beverages, canned juices, water,

coffee, tea, reconstituted juices, and reconstituted soups. Does not include reconstituted infant formula.

b

Includes water, coffee, tea, reconstituted juices, and reconstituted soups.

Source: Derived from Pennington (1983).

Table 3-26. Mean and Standard Error (SE) for the Daily Intake of Beverages and Tap

Water by Age

Age

years

Tap Water Intake

mL

Water-Based Drinks

mL

a

Soups

mL

Total Beverage Intake

b

mL

All ages

<1

1 to 4

5 to 9

10 to 14

15 to 19

20 to 24

25 to 29

30 to 39

40 to 59

>60

662.5 ± 9.9

170.7 ± 64.5

434.6 ± 31.4

521.0 ± 26.4

620.2 ± 24.7

664.7 ± 26.0

656.4 ± 33.9

619.8 ± 34.6

636.5 ± 27.2

735.3 ± 21.1

762.5 ± 23.7

457.1 ± 6.7

8.3 ± 43.7

97.9 ± 21.5

116.5 ± 18.0

140.0 ± 16.9

201.5 ± 17.7

343.1 ± 23.1

441.6 ± 23.6

601.0 ± 18.6

686.5 ± 14.4

561.1 ± 16.2

45.9 ± 1.2

10.1 ± 7.9

43.8 ± 3.9

36.6 ± 3.2

35.4 ± 3.0

34.8 ± 3.2

38.9 ± 4.2

41.3 ± 4.2

40.6 ± 3.3

51.6 ± 2.6

59.4 ± 2.9

1,434.0 ± 13.7

307.0 ± 89.2

743.0 ± 43.5

861.0 ± 36.5

1,025.0 ± 34.2

1,241.0 ± 35.9

1,484.0 ± 46.9

1,531.0 ± 48.0

1,642.0 ± 37.7

1,732.0 ± 29.3

1,547.0 ± 32.8

a

Includes water-based drinks such as coffee, etc. Reconstituted infant formula does not appear to be included in this

group.

b

Includes tap water and water-based drinks such as coffee, tea, soups, and other drinks such as soft drinks, fruitades,

and alcoholic drinks.

Source: U.S. EPA (1984).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-71

Table 3-27. Average Total Tap Water Intake Rate by Sex, Age, and Geographic Area

Group/Subgroup

Number of Respondents

Average Total Tap Water Intake

a,b

L/day

Total group

Sex

Males

Females

Age, years

21 to 44

45 to 64

65 to 84

Geographic area

Atlanta

Connecticut

Detroit

Iowa

New Jersey

New Mexico

New Orleans

San Francisco

Seattle

Utah

5,258

3,892

1,366

291

1,991

2,976

207

844

429

743

1,542

165

112

621

316

279

1.39

1.40

1.35

1.30

1.48

1.33

1.39

1.37

1.33

1.61

1.27

1.49

1.61

1.36

1.44

1.35

a

Standard deviations not reported in Cantor et al. (1987).

b

Total tap water defined as all water and beverages derived from tap water.

Source: Cantor et al. (1987).

Table 3-28. Frequency Distribution of Total Tap Water Intake Rates

a

Consumption Rate

L/day

Frequency

b

%

Cumulative Frequency

b

%

≤0.80

0.81−1.12

1.13−1.44

1.45−1.95

≥1.96

20.6

21.3

20.5

19.5

18.1

20.6

41.9

62.4

81.9

100.0

a

Represents consumption of tap water and beverages derived from tap water in a “typical” winter week.

b

Extracted from Table 3 in the article by Cantor et al. (1987).

Source: Cantor et al. (1987).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-72

Table 3-29. Total Tap Water Intake (mL/day) for Both Sexes Combined

a

Age (years)

Number of

Observations

Mean

SD

SE of Mean

Percentile Distribution

1

5

10

25

50

75

90

95

99

<0.5

182

272

247

18

*

0

80

240

332

640

800

*

0.5 to 0.9

221

328

265

18

*

0

117

268

480

688

764

*

1 to 3

1,498

646

390

10

33

169

240

374

567

820

1,162

1,419

1,899

4 to 6

1,702

742

406

10

68

204

303

459

660

972

1,302

1,520

1,932

7 to 10

2,405

787

417

9

68

241

318

484

731

1,016

1,338

1,556

1,998

11 to 14

2,803

925

521

10

76

244

360

561

838

1,196

1,621

1,924

2,503

15 to 19

2,998

999

593

11

55

239

348

587

897

1,294

1,763

2,134

2,871

20 to 44

7,171

1,255

709

8

105

337

483

766

1,144

1,610

2,121

2,559

3,634

45 to 64

4,560

1,546

723

11

335

591

745

1,057

1,439

1,898

2,451

2,870

3,994

65 to 74

1,663

1,500

660

16

301

611

766

1,044

1,394

1,873

2,333

2,693

3,479

>75

878

1,381

600

20

279

568

728

961

1,302

1,706

2,170

2,476

3,087

Infants (ages <1)

Children (ages 1 to 10)

Teens (ages 11 to 19)

Adults (ages 20 to 64)

Adults (ages >65)

All

403

5,605

5,801

11,731

2,541

26,081

302

736

965

1,366

1,459

1,193

258

410

562

728

643

702

13

5

7

13

4

0

56

67

148

299

80

0

192

240

416

598

286

0

286

353

559

751

423

113

442

574

870

1,019

690

240

665

867

1,252

1,367

1,081

424

960

1,246

1,737

1,806

1,561

649

1,294

1,701

2,268

2,287

2,092

775

1,516

2,026

2,707

2,636

2,477

1,102

1,954

2,748

3,780

3,338

3,415

a

Total tap water is defined as “all water from the household tap consumed directly as a beverage or used to prepare foods and beverages.”

* Value not reported due to insufficient number of observations.

SE = Standard error.

Source: Ershow and Cantor (1989).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-73

Table 3-30. Total Tap Water Intake (mL/kg-day) for Both Sexes Combined

a

Age (years)

Number of

Observations

Mean

SD

SE of

Mean

Percentile Distribution

Actual

Count

Weighted

Count

1

5

10

25

50

75

90

95

99

<0.5

182

201.2

52.4

53.2

3.9

*

0

14.8

37.8

66.1

128.3

155.6

*

0.5 to 0.9

221

243.2

36.2

29.2

2

*

0

15.3

32.2

48.1

69.4

102.9

*

1 to 3

1,498

1,687.7

46.8

28.1

0.7

2.7

11.8

17.8

27.2

41.4

60.4

82.1

101.6

140.6

4 to 6

1,702

1,923.9

37.9

21.8

0.5

3.4

10.3

14.9

21.9

33.3

48.7

69.3

81.1

103.4

7 to 10

2,405

2,742.4

26.9

15.3

0.3

2.2

7.4

10.3

16

24

35.5

47.3

55.2

70.5

11 to 14

2,803

3,146.9

20.2

11.6

0.2

1.5

4.9

7.5

11.9

18.1

26.2

35.7

41.9

55

15 to 19

2,998

3,677.9

16.4

9.6

0.2

1

3.9

5.7

9.6

14.8

21.5

29

35

46.3

20 to 44

7,171

13,444.5

18.6

10.7

0.1

1.6

4.9

7.1

11.2

16.8

23.7

32.2

38.4

53.4

45 to 64

4,560

8,300.4

22

10.8

0.2

4.4

8

10.3

14.7

20.2

27.2

35.5

42.1

57.8

65 to 74

1,663

2,740.2

21.9

9.9

0.2

4.6

8.7

10.9

15.1

20.2

27.2

35.2

40.6

51.6

>75

878

1,401.8

21.6

9.5

0.3

3.8

8.8

10.7

15

20.5

27.1

33.9

38.6

47.2

Infants (ages <1)

Children (ages 1 to 10)

Teens (ages 11 to 19)

Adults (ages 20 to 64)

Adults (ages >65)

All

403

5,605

5,801

11,731

2,541

26,081

444.3

6,354.1

6,824.9

21,744.9

4,142.0

39,510.2

43.5

35.5

18.2

19.9

21.8

22.6

42.5

22.9

10.8

9.8

15.4

2.1

0.3

0.1

0.2

0.1

0

2.7

1.2

2.2

4.5

1.7

0

8.3

4.3

5.9

8.7

5.8

0

12.5

6.5

8.0

10.9

8.2

15.3

19.6

10.6

12.4

15.0

13.0

35.3

30.5

16.3

18.2

20.3

19.4

54.7

46.0

23.6

25.3

27.1

28.0

101.8

64.4

32.3

33.7

34.7

39.8

126.5

79.4

38.9

40.0

50.0

220.5

113.9

52.6

54.8

51.3

79.8

a

Total tap water is defined as “all water from the household tap consumed directly as a beverage or used to prepare foods and beverages.”

* Value not reported due to insufficient number of observations.

SE = Standard error.

Source: Ershow and Cantor (1989).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-74

Table 3-31. Total Tap Water Intake (as % of total water intake) by Broad Age Category

a,b

Age (years)

Mean

Percentile Distribution

1

5

10

25

50

75

90

95

99

<1

26

-

c

-

c

-

c

12

22

37

55

62

82

1 to 10

45

6

19

24

34

45

57

67

72

81

11 to 19

47

6

18

24

35

47

59

69

74

83

20 to 64

59

12

27

35

49

61

72

79

83

90

>65

65

25

41

47

58

67

74

81

84

90

a

Does not include pregnant women, lactating women, or breast-fed children.

b

Total tap water is defined as “all water from the household tap consumed directly as a beverage or used to prepare

foods and beverages.”

c

Value is less than 0.5%.

Source: Ershow and Cantor (1989).

Table 3-32. General Dietary Sources of Tap Water for Both Sexes

a,b

Age

years

Source

% of Tap Water

Mean

SD

5

25

50

75

95

99

<1

Food

c

Drinking water

Other beverages

All sources

11

69

20

100

24

37

33

-

d

-

d

-

d

-

d

39

-

d

-

d

87

-

d

10

100

22

70

100

1 to 10

Food

c

Drinking water

Other beverages

All sources

15

65

20

100

16

25

21

-

d

-

d

-

d

5

52

-

d

10

70

15

19

84

32

44

96

63

100

93

11 to 19

Food

c

Drinking water

Other beverages

All sources

13

65

22

100

15

25

23

-

d

-

d

-

d

3

52

-

d

8

70

16

17

85

34

38

98

68

100

96

20 to 64

Food

c

Drinking water

Other beverages

All sources

8

47

45

100

10

26

-

d

-

d

-

d

2

29

25

5

48

44

11

67

63

25

91

49

100

>65

Food

c

Drinking water

Other beverages

All sources

8

50

42

100

9

23

-

d

-

d

3

2

36

27

5

52

40

11

66

57

23

87

85

38

99

100

All

Food

c

Drinking water

Other beverages

All sources

10

54

36

100

13

27

-

d

-

d

-

d

2

36

14

6

56

34

13

75

55

31

95

87

64

100

a

Does not include pregnant women, lactating women, or breast-fed children.

b

Individual values may not add to totals due to rounding.

c

Food category includes soups.

d

Value is less than 0.5%.

Source: Ershow and Cantor (1989).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-75

Table 3-33. Summary Statistics for Best-Fit Lognormal Distributions for Water Intake

Rates

a

Group

years

In Total Fluid Intake Rate

µ

σ

R

2

<1

6.979

0.291

0.996

1 to <11

7.182

0.340

0.953

11 to <20

7.490

0.347

0.966

20 to <65

7.563

0.400

0.977

>65

7.583

0.360

0.988

All ages

7.487

0.405

0.984

Simulated balanced population

7.492

0.407

1.000

Group

years

In Total Fluid Intake Rate

µ

σ

R

2

<1

5.587

0.615

0.970

1 to <11

6.429

0.498

0.984

11 to <20

6.667

0.535

0.986

20 to <65

7.023

0.489

0.956

>65

7.088

0.476

0.978

All ages

6.870

0.530

0.978

Simulated balanced population

6.864

0.575

0.995

a

These values (mL/day) were used in the following equations to estimate the quantiles and averages for total tap water

intake shown in Table 3-61.

97.5 percentile intake rate = exp (µ + [1.96 × σ])

75 percentile intake rate = exp (µ + [0.6745 × σ])

50 percentile intake rate = exp (µ)

25 percentile intake rate = exp (µ − [0.6745 × σ])

2.5 percentile intake rate = exp (µ − [1.96 × σ])

Mean intake rate = exp (µ + [0.5 × σ

2

])

µ = Mean.

σ = Standard deviation.

Source: Roseberry and Burmaster (1992).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-76

Table 3-34. Estimated Quantiles and Means for Total Tap Water Intake Rates (mL/day)

a

Age Group

years

Percentile

Arithmetic

Average

2.5

25

50

75

97.5

<1

1 to <11

11 to <20

20 to <65

>65

All ages

Simulated balanced population

80

233

275

430

471

341

310

176

443

548

807

869

674

649

267

620

786

1,122

1,198

963

957

404

867

1,128

1,561

1,651

1,377

1,411

891

1,644

2,243

2,926

3,044

2,721

2,954

323

701

907

1,265

1,341

1,108

1,129

a

Total tap water is defined as “all water from the household tap consumed directly as a beverage or used to prepare

foods and beverages.”

Source: Roseberry and Burmaster (1992).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-77

Table 3-35. Water Ingested (mL/day)

a

from Water by Itself and Water Added to Other Beverages and Foods

Category

6 Weeks

N = 124

3 Months

N = 120

6 Months

N = 99

9 Months

N = 77

Water by itself

Range

Per capita mean

b

± SD

Consumer-only mean

c

Percent consuming

d

0−355

30 ± 89

89

28

0−355

30 ± 59

89

24

0−266

30 ± 59

118

42

0−473

89 ± 89

118

66

Water added to formula-powdered concentrate

Range

Per capita mean ± SD

Consumer-only mean

Percent consuming

0−1,242

177 ± 296

473

39

0−1,242

266 ± 384

621

42

0−1,124

266 ± 355

562

48

0−1,064

207 ± 325

562

36

Liquid concentrate

Range

Per capita mean ± SD

Consumer-only mean

Percent consuming

0−621

89 ± 148

355

23

0−680

237 ± 207

384

30

0−710

148 ± 207

414

35

0−532

59 ± 148

325

21

All concentrated formula

Range

Per capita mean ± SD

Consumer-only mean

Percent consuming

0−1,242

266 ± 296

444

60

0−1,242

384 ± 355

562

68

0−1,123

414 ± 325

532

81

0−1,064

266 ± 296

503

56

Water added to juices and other beverages

Range

Per capita mean ± SD

Consumer-only mean

Percent consuming

0−118

<30 ± 30

89

3

0−710

30 ± 89

207

9

0−473

30 ± 89

148

18

0−887

59 ± 148

207

32

Water added to powdered baby foods and cereals

Range

Per capita mean ± SD

Consumer-only mean

Percent consuming

0−30

<30 ± 30

30

2

0−177

<30 ± 30

59

17

0−266

59 ± 59

89

64

0−177

30 ± 59

89

43

Water added to other foods (soups, Jell-o, puddings)

Range

Per capita mean ± SD

Consumer-only mean

Percent consuming

-

0

0−118

30 ± 30

89

2

0−118

<30 ± 30

59

8

0−355

30 ± 59

118

29

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-78

Table 3-35. Water Ingested (mL/day)

a

from Water by Itself and Water Added to Other Beverages and Foods (Continued)

Category

6 Weeks

N = 124

3 Months

N = 120

6 Months

N = 99

9 Months

N = 77

All sources of water

Range

Per capita mean ± SD

Consumer-only mean

Percent consuming

0−1,242

296 ± 325

414

68

0−1,419

414 ± 414

562

77

0−1,123

473 ± 325

503

94

0−1,745

444 ± 355

473

97

a

Converted from ounces/day; 1 fluid ounce = 29.57 mL.

b

Mean intake among entire sample.

c

Mean intake for only those ingesting water from the particular category.

d

Percentage of infants receiving water from that individual source.

N = Number of observations.

- Indicates there is insufficient sample size to estimate means.

Source: Levy et al. (1995).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-79

Table 3-36. Mean per Capita Drinking Water Intake Based on U.S. Department of

Agriculture (USDA), Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII) Data from

1989−1991 (mL/day)

Sex and Age

years

Plain Drinking

Water

Coffee

Tea

Fruit Drinks

and Ades

a

Total

Males and females:

<1

1 to 2

3 to 5

<5

194

333

409

359

0

<0.5

2

1

<0.5

9

26

17

85

100

86

211.5

427.5

537

463

Males:

6 to 11

12 to 19

20 to 29

30 to 39

40 to 49

50 to 59

60 to 69

70 to 79

>80

>20

537

725

842

793

745

755

946

824

747

809

2

12

168

407

534

551

506

430

326

408

44

95

136

149

168

115

165

139

114

104

101

50

53

51

34

45

57

60

697

936

1,247

1,386

1,481

1,525

1,601

1,414

1,295

1,416

Females:

6 to 11

12 to 19

20 to 29

30 to 39

40 to 49

50 to 59

60 to 69

70 to 79

>80

>20

476

604

739

732

781

819

829

772

856

774

1

21

154

317

412

438

429

324

275

327

40

87

120

136

174

137

124

161

149

141

86

87

61

59

36

37

36

34

28

46

603

799

1,074

1,244

1,403

1,431

1,418

1,291

1,308

1,288

All individuals

711

260

114

65

1,150

a

Includes regular and low-calorie fruit drinks, punches, and ades, including those made from powdered mix and frozen

concentrate. Excludes fruit juices and carbonated drinks.

Source: USDA (1995).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-80

Table 3-37. Number of Respondents Who Consumed Tap Water at a Specified Daily

Frequency

Population Group

Total N

None

Number of Glasses in a Day

1−2

3−5

6−9

10−19

20+

DK

Overall

Sex

Male

Female

Refused

Age (years)

1 to 4

5 to 11

12 to 17

18 to 64

>64

Race

White

Black

Asian

Some others

Hispanic

Refused

Hispanic

No

Yes

DK

Refused

Employment

Full-time

Part-time

Not employed

Refused

Education

<High school

High school graduate

<College

College graduate

Post graduate

Census region

Northeast

Midwest

South

West

Day of week

Weekday

Weekend

Season

Winter

Spring

Summer

Fall

4,663

2,163

2,498

2

263

348

326

2,972

670

3,774

463

77

96

193

60

4,244

347

26

46

2,017

379

1,309

32

399

1,253

895

650

445

1,048

1,036

1,601

978

3,156

1,507

1,264

1,181

1,275

943

1,334

604

728

2

114

90

86

908

117

1,048

147

25

36

63

15

1,202

116

5

11

637

90

313

6

89

364

258

195

127

351

243

450

290

864

470

398

337

352

247

1,225

582

643

-

96

127

109

751

127

1,024

113

18

42

10

1,134

80

6

5

525

94

275

4

95

315

197

157

109

262

285

437

241

840

385

321

282

323

299

1,253

569

684

-

40

86

88

769

243

1,026

129

23

22

40

13

1,162

73

7

11

497

120

413

11

118

330

275

181

113

266

308

408

271

862

391

336

339

344

234

500

216

284

-

7

15

22

334

112

416

38

6

28

6

451

41

4

218

50

188

1

51

132

118

82

62

95

127

165

113

334

166

128

127

155

90

151

87

64

-

1

7

115

20

123

9

1

7

10

1

129

18

3

1

72

13

49

2

14

52

31

19

16

32

26

62

31

96

55

45

33

41

32

31

25

6

-

0

2

-

26

2

25

1

-

2

1

26

4

-

1

18

7

3

1

2

13

5

4

3

7

9

11

4

27

4

5

10

9

7

138

65

73

-

5

20

11

54

42

92

21

4

5

7

9

116

13

1

8

40

5

54

4

28

37

9

6

12

28

33

57

20

106

32

26

40

32

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-81

Table 3-37. Number of Respondents Who Consumed Tap Water at a Specified Daily

Frequency (Continued)

Population Group

Total N

None

Number of Glasses in a Day

1−2

3−5

6−9

10−19

20+

DK

Asthma

No

Yes

DK

Angina

No

Yes

DK

Bronchitis/emphysema

No

Yes

DK

4,287

341

35

4,500

125

38

4,424

203

36

1,232

96

6

1,308

18

8

1,280

48

6

1,137

83

5

1,195

25

5

1,161

55

9

1,155

91

7

1,206

40

7

1,189

58

6

459

40

1

470

27

3

474

24

2

134

16

1

143

6

2

142

9

-

29

1

29

1

29

1

115

13

10

123

6

9

124

5

9

- = Missing data.

DK = Don’t know.

N = Sample size.

Refused = Respondent refused to answer.

Source: U.S. EPA (1996).

Table 3-38. Number of Respondents Who Consumed Juice Reconstituted with Tap Water

at a Specified Daily Frequency

Population Group

Total N

Number of Glasses in a Day

None

1−2

3−5

6−9

10−19

20+

DK

Overall

Sex

Male

Female

Refused

Age (years)

1 to 4

5 to 11

12 to 17

18 to 64

>64

Race

White

Black

Asian

Some others

Hispanic

Refused

4,663

2,163

2,498

2

263

348

326

2,972

670

3,774

463

77

96

193

60

1,877

897

980

-

126

123

112

1,277

206

1,479

200

33

46

95

24

1,418

590

826

2

71

140

118

817

252

1,168

142

27

19

51

11

933

451

482

-

48

58

63

614

133

774

83

15

24

30

7

241

124

117

-

11

12

18

155

43

216

15

1

2

5

2

73

35

38

-

4

2

7

46

12

57

9

-

1

5

1

21

17

4

-

1

16

2

16

1

-

3

1

-

66

33

-

2

11

4

30

14

44

7

0

1

5

9

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-82

Table 3-38. Number of Respondents Who Consumed Juice Reconstituted with Tap Water

at a Specified Daily Frequency (Continued)

Population Group

Total N

Number of Glasses in a Day

None

1−2

3−5

6−9

10−19

20+

DK

Hispanic

No

Yes

DK

Refused

Employment

Full-time

Part-time

Not employed

Refused

Education

<High school

High school graduate

<College

College graduate

Post graduate

Census region

Northeast

Midwest

South

West

Day of week

Weekday

Weekend

Season

Winter

Spring

Summer

Fall

Asthma

No

Yes

DK

Angina

No

Yes

DK

Bronchitis/emphysema

No

Yes

DK

4,244

347

26

46

2,017

379

1,309

32

399

1,253

895

650

445

1,048

1,036

1,601

978

3,156

1,507

1,264

1,181

1,275

943

4,287

341

35

4,500

125

38

4,424

203

36

1,681

165

11

20

871

156

479

15

146

520

367

274

182

440

396

593

448

1,261

616

529

473

490

385

1,734

130

13

1,834

31

12

1,782

84

11

1,318

87

6

7

559

102

426

4

131

355

253

201

130

297

337

516

268

969

449

382

389

265

1,313

102

3

1,362

53

3

1,361

53

4

863

61

5

4

412

88

265

4

82

254

192

125

92

220

200

332

181

616

307

245

215

263

210

853

74

6

900

25

8

882

44

7

226

14

-

1

103

19

75

2

25

68

47

31

26

51

63

84

43

162

79

66

54

68

53

216

25

-

231

7

3

230

10

1

64

7

1

32

7

20

1

7

21

18

7

5

13

17

26

17

51

22

23

19

18

13

69

3

1

67

5

1

65

6

2

17

4

-

9

2

7

-

2

7

5

1

3

4

10

3

11

10

4

8

6

3

20

1

-

20

1

-

21

-

49

7

3

7

20

5

21

3

4

17

11

5

4

15

14

28

9

46

20

10

17

28

11

55

5

6

59

1

6

57

3

6

- = Missing data.

DK = Don’t know.

N = Sample size.

Refused = Respondent refused to answer.

Source: U.S. EPA (1996).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-83

Table 3-39. Mean and (standard error [SE]) Water and Drink Consumption (mL/kg-day) by Race/Ethnicity

Race/Ethnic

Group

N

Plain Tap

Water

Milk and Milk

Drinks

Reconstituted

Formula

RTF

Formula

Baby

Food

Juices and

Carbonated Drinks

Noncarbonated

Drinks

Other

Total

a

Black

Non-Hispanic

121

21

(1.7)

24

(4.6)

35

(6.0)

4

(2.0)

8

(1.6)

2

(0.7)

14

(1.3)

21

(1.7)

129

(5.7)

White

Non-Hispanic

620

13

(0.8)

23

(1.2)

29

(2.7)

8

(1.5)

10

(1.2)

1

(0.2)

11

(0.7)

18

(0.8)

113

(2.6)

Hispanic

146

15

(1.2)

23

(2.4)

38

(7.3)

12

(4.0)

10

(1.4)

1

(0.3)

10

(1.6)

16

(1.4)

123

(5.2)

Other

59

21

(2.4)

19

(3.7)

31

(9.1)

19

(11.2)

7

(4.0)

1

(0.5)

8

(2.0)

19

(3.2)

124

(10.6)

a

Totals may be slightly different from the sums of all categories due to rounding.

N = Number of observations.

RTF = Ready to feed.

Source: Heller et al. (2000).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-84

Table 3-40. Plain Tap Water and Total Water Consumption by Age, Sex, Region,

Urbanicity, and Poverty Category

Plain Tap Water

mL/kg-day

Total Water

mL/kg-day

Variable

N

Mean

SE

Mean

SE

Age

<12 months

12 to 24 months

296

650

11

18

1.0

0.8

130

108

4.6

1.7

Sex

Male

Female

475

471

15

1.0

0.8

116

119

4.1

3.2

Region

Northeast

Midwest

South

West

175

197

352

222

13

14

15

17

1.4

1.0

1.3

1.1

121

120

113

119

6.3

3.1

3.7

4.6

Urbanicity

Urban

Suburban

Rural

305

446

195

16

13

15

1.5

0.9

1.2

123

117

109

3.5

3.1

3.9

Poverty category

a

0−1.30

1.31−3.50

>3.50

289

424

233

19

14

12

1.5

1.0

1.3

128

117

109

2.6

4.2

3.5

Total

946

15

0.6

118

2.3

a

Poverty category represents family’s annual incomes of 0−1.30, 1.31−3.50, and greater than 3.50 times the federal

poverty level.

N = Number of observations.

SE = Standard Error.

Source: Heller et al. (2000).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-85

Table 3-41. Percentage of Subjects Consuming Beverages and Mean Daily Beverage Intakes (mL/day) for Children with Returned

Questionnaires

Age at Questionnaire

Actual Age (months)

N

b

6 Months

6.29 ± 0.35

677

9 Months

9.28 ± 0.35

681

12 Months

12.36 ± 0.46

659

16 Months

16.31 ± 0.49

641

20 Months

20.46 ± 0.57

632

24 Months

24.41 ± 0.53

605

6 to 24 Months

a

-

585

c

Human milk

d

30

19

11

5

3

0

-

Infant formula

e

%

d

mL/day

g

68

798 ± 234

69

615 ± 328

29

160 ± 275

4

12 ± 77

2

9 ± 83

0

-

67

f

207 ± 112

Cow’s milk

e

%

d

mL/day

g

5

30 ± 145

25

136 ± 278

79

470 ± 310

91

467 ± 251

93

402 ± 237

97

358 ± 225

67

f

355 ± 163

Formula and cow’s milk

e

%

d

mL/day

g

70

828 ± 186

81

751 ± 213

88

630 ± 245

92

479 ± 248

94

411 ± 237

98

358 ± 228

67

f

562 ± 154

Juice and juice drinks

%

d

mL/day

g

55

65 ± 95

73

103 ± 112

89

169 ± 151

94

228 ± 166

95

269 ± 189

93

228 ± 172

99

h

183 ± 103

Water

%

d

mL/day

g

36

27 ± 47

59

53 ± 71

75

92 ± 109

87

124 ± 118

90

142 ± 127

94

145 ± 148

99

h

109 ± 74

Other beverages

i

%

d

mL/day

g

1

3 ± 18

9

6 ± 27

23

27 ± 71

42

53 ± 109

62

83 ± 121

86

89 ± 133

80

h

44 ± 59

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-86

Table 3-41. Percentage of Subjects Consuming Beverages and Mean Daily Beverage Intakes (mL/day) for Children with Returned

Questionnaires (Continued)

Age at Questionnaire

Actual Age (months)

N

b

6 Months

6.29 ± 0.35

677

9 Months

9.28 ± 0.35

681

12 Months

12.36 ± 0.46

659

16 Months

16.31 ± 0.49

641

20 Months

20.46 ± 0.57

632

24 Months

24.41 ± 0.53

605

6 to 24 Months

a

-

585

c

Total beverages (mL/day)

e,g,j

934 ± 219

917 ± 245

926 ± 293

887 ± 310

908 ± 310

819 ± 299

920 ± 207

a

Cumulative number of children and percentage of children consuming beverage and beverage intakes for the 6- through 24-month period.

b

Number of children with returned questionnaires at each time period.

c

Number of children with cumulative intakes for 6- through 24-month period.

d

Percentage of children consuming beverage.

e

Children are not included when consuming human milk.

f

Percentage of children consuming beverage during 6- through 24-month period. Children who consumed human milk are not included.

g

Mean standard deviation of beverage intake. Converted from ounces/day; 1 fluid ounce = 29.57 mL.

h

Percentage of children consuming beverage during 6- through 24-month period.

i

Other beverages include nonjuice beverages (e.g., carbonated beverages, Kool-Aid).

j

Total beverages includes all beverages except human milk.

- Indicates insufficient data.

Source: Marshall et al. (2003a).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-87

Table 3-42. Mean (± standard deviation [SD]) Daily Beverage Intakes Reported on Beverage Frequency Questionnaire and 3-Day

Food and Beverage Diaries

Beverage

Age

6 months (N = 240)

12 months (N = 192)

3 years (N = 129)

5 years (N = 112)

Questionnaire

Diary

%

b

Questionnaire

Diary

%

b

Questionnaire

Diary

%

b

Questionnaire

Diary

%

b

mL/day

a

mL/day

a

mL/day

a

mL/day

a

Human milk

204 ± 373

195 ± 358

28.0

9 ± 21

56 ± 225

12.6

NA

c

NA

-

NA

-

Infant formula

609 ± 387

603 ± 364

85.8

180 ± 290

139 ± 251

37.0

NA

-

NA

-

Cow’s milk

24 ± 124

6.7

429 ± 349

408 ± 331

90.4

316 ± 216

358 ± 216

100

319 ± 198

325 ± 177

98.2

Juice/juice drinks

56 ± 124

33 ± 59

57.5

151 ± 136

106 ± 101

92.2

192 ± 169

198 ± 169

96.9

189 ± 169

180 ± 163

95.5

Liquid soft drinks

6 ± 68

0 ± 0

1.3

9 ± 30

3 ± 15

20.9

62 ± 71

74 ± 101

74.2

74 ± 95

101 ± 121

82.1

Powdered soft

drinks

0 ± 18

0 ± 0

0.4

12 ± 47

3 ± 18

10.5

62 ± 115

47 ± 101

51.2

74 ± 124

47 ± 95

52.7

Water

44 ± 80

30 ± 53

61.7

127 ± 136

80 ± 109

84.9

177 ± 204

136 ± 177

95.3

240 ± 242

169 ± 183

99.1

Total

940 ± 319

896 ± 195

100

905 ± 387

804 ± 284

100

795 ± 355

816 ± 299

100

896 ± 399

819 ± 302

100

a

Mean standard deviation of all subjects. Converted from ounces/day; 1 fluid ounce = 29.57 mL.

b

Percent of subjects consuming beverage on either questionnaire or diary.

N = Number of observations.

NA = Not applicable.

- Indicates insufficient data to calculate percentage.

Source: Marshall et al. (2003b).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-88

Table 3-43. Consumption of Beverages by Infants and Toddlers (feeding infants and toddlers study)

Beverage

Age (months)

4 to 6 months (N = 862)

7 to 8 months (N = 483)

9 to 11 months (N = 679)

12 to 14 months

N = 374

15 to 18 months

N = 308

19 to 24 months (N = 316)

Consumers

Mean ±

SD

Consumers

Mean ±

SD

Consumers

Mean ±

SD

Consumers

Mean ±

SD

Consumers

Mean ±

SD

Consumers

Mean ± SD

Category

%

a

mL/day

b

%

a

mL/day

b

%

a

mL/day

b

%

a

mL/day

b

%

a

mL/day

b

%

a

mL/day

b

Total milks

c

100

778 ±

257

100

692 ±

257

99.7

659 ± 284

98.2

618 ± 293

94.2

580 ±

305

93.4

532 ± 281

100% juice

d

21.3

121 ± 89

45.6

145 ±

109

55.3

160 ± 127

56.2

186 ± 145

57.8

275 ±

189

61.6

281 ± 189

Fruit drinks

e

1.6

101 ± 77

7.1

98 ± 77

12.4

157 ± 139

29.1

231 ± 186

38.6

260 ±

231

42.6

305 ± 308

Carbonated

0.1

86 ± 0

1.1

6 ± 9

1.7

89 ± 92

4.5

115 ± 83

11.2

157 ±

106

11.9

163 ± 172

Water

33.7

163 ±

231

56.1

174 ±

219

66.9

210 ± 234

72.2

302 ± 316

74.0

313 ±

260

77.0

337 ± 245

Other

f

1.4

201 ±

192

2.2

201 ±

219

3.5

169 ± 166

6.6

251 ± 378

12.2

198 ±

231

11.2

166 ± 248

Total

beverages

100

863 ±

254

100

866 ±

310

100

911 ± 361

100

1,017 ±

399

100

1,079 ±

399

100

1,097 ±

482

a

Weighted percentages, adjusted for over-sampling, nonresponse, and under-representation of some racial and ethnic groups.

b

Amounts consumed only by those children who had a beverage from this beverage category. Converted from ounces/day; 1 fluid ounce = 29.57 mL.

c

Includes human milk, infant formula, cow’s milk, soy milk, and goat’s milk.

d

Fruit or vegetable juices with no added sweeteners.

e

Includes beverages with less than 100% juice and often with added sweeteners; some were fortified with one or more nutrients.

f

“Other” beverages category included tea, cocoa, and similar dry milk beverages, and electrolyte replacement beverages for infants.

N = Number of observations.

Source: Skinner et al. (2004).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-89

Table 3-44. Number of Drinking Water Events Per Day, Intake Per Event (mL/event), and Daily Intake (mL/day)

a

Age and Sex

Summer

Winter

N

Events/day

mL

b

/event

mL

b

/day

N

Events/day

mL

b

/event

mL

b

/day

Mean ± SD

<2 years, M/F

52

2.8 ± 2.2

145 ± 74

399 ± 417

86

3.0 ± 2.7

127 ± 74

393 ± 411

3 to 5 years, M/F

77

3.9 ± 3.1

157 ± 74

583 ± 488

123

3.1 ± 2.1

142 ± 68

444 ± 384

6 to 12 years, M/F

138

3.2 ± 2.3

207 ± 124

621 ± 515

211

3.1 ± 2.2

172 ± 151

544 ± 727

13 to 19 years, M

52

3.6 ± 2.8

287 ± 225

1,011 ± 1,091

79

3.5 ± 3.2

260 ± 160

926 ± 1,431

13 to 19 years, F

60

3.0 ± 2.1

263 ± 154

769 ± 943

91

4.2 ± 3.6

251 ± 195

1,091 ± 1,508

20 to 49 years, M

313

4.1 ± 3.1

358 ± 260

1,431 ± 1,470

460

3.9 ± 3.4

290 ± 198

1,112 ± 1,221

20 to 49 years, F

389

4.5 ± 3.4

296 ± 198

1,286 ± 1,230

618

4.3 ± 3.2

290 ± 207

1,209 ± 1,118

>50 years, M

259

4.5 ± 3.2

245 ± 130

1,076 ± 887

301

4.1 ± 2.6

245 ± 169

1,011 ± 831

>50 years, F

400

5.7 ± 3.4

237 ± 130

1,277 ± 872

489

5.1 ± 3.2

240 ± 93

1,183 ± 597

Total

1,740

4.4 ± 3.2

266 ± 186

1,141 ± 1,094

2,458

4.1 ± 3.1

248 ± 180

1,023 ± 1,059

a

Based on a randomly selected day for each survey participant in the DWCS.

b

Converted from ounces to mL by U.S. EPA by multiplying intake rates in ounces by 29.57 mL/ounce.

F = Female.

M = Male.

N = Number of participants.

Source: Barraj et al. (2009).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-90

Table 3-45. Mean (standard error [SE]) Total Daily Water Intake

a

for Older Adults

Water Intake

Young-Old (65 to <75 years)

N = 1,105

Middle-Old (75 to <85 years)

N = 746

Oldest-Old (85+ years)

N = 203

Total (g/day)

2,905.8 (39.5)

2,573.4 (44.1)

2,275.8 (69.7)

Total (g/kg-day)

38.4 (0.6)

36.5 (0.6)

35.7 (1.7)

a

Total water was defined as the sum of drinking water and water in beverages and foods.

N = Number of respondents.

Source: Zizza et al. (2009).

Table 3-46. Per Capita

a

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

b

Water Ingestion Based

on 1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Community

Water (mL/day)

Age

Sample Size

Mean

Percentile

10

25

50

75

90

95

99

Birth to <1 month

91

184

-

322

687*

839*

860*

1 to <3 months

253

227

-

456

804

896*

1,165*

3 to <6 months

428

362

-

148

695

928

1,056

1,424*

6 to <12 months

714

360

-

17

218

628

885

1,055

1,511*

1 to <2 years

1,040

271

-

60

188

402

624

837

1,215*

2 to <3 years

1,056

317

-

78

246

479

683

877

1,364*

3 to <6 years

4,391

380

4

98

291

547

834

1,078

1,654

6 to <11 years

1,670

447

22

133

350

648

980

1,235

1,870*

11 to <16 years

1,005

606

30

182

459

831

1,387

1,727

2,568*

16 to <18 years

363

731

16

194

490

961

1,562

1,983*

3,720*

18 to <21 years

389

826

24

236

628

1,119

1,770

2,540*

3,889*

>21 years

9,207

1,104

69

422

928

1,530

2,230

2,811

4,523

>65 years

c

2,170

1,127

16

545

1,067

1,601

2,139

3,551

3,661

All ages

20,607

926

30

263

710

1,311

2,014

2,544

4,242

a

Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.

b

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the

preparation of food or beverages.

c

U.S. EPA (2004).

- = Zero.

* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in

the United States (LSRO, 1995).

Source: Kahn (2008) (based on 1994−1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-91

Table 3-47. Per Capita

a

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

b

Water Ingestion Based

on 1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Bottled

Water (mL/day)

Age

Sample

Size

Mean

Percentile

10

25

50

75

90

95

99

Birth to <1 month

91

104

-

18

437*

556*

1,007*

1 to <3 months

253

106

-

541

771*

1,056*

3 to <6 months

428

120

-

572

774

1,443*

6 to <12 months

714

120

-

53

506

761

1,284*

1 to <2 years

1,040

59

-

212

350

801*

2 to <3 years

1,056

76

-

280

494

1,001*

3 to <6 years

4,391

84

-

325

531

1,031*

6 to <11 years

1,670

84

-

330

532

1,079*

11 to <16 years

1,005

111

-

382

709

1,431*

16 to <18 years

363

109

-

426

680*

1,605*

18 to <21 years

389

185

-

514

1,141*

2,364*

>21 years

9,207

189

-

754

1,183

2,129

>65 years

c

2,170

136

-

591

1,038

1,957

All ages

20,607

163

-

592

1,059

2,007

a

Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.

b

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the

preparation of food or beverages.

c

U.S. EPA (2004).

- = Zero.

* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in

the United States (LSRO, 1995).

Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994−1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-92

Table 3-48. Per Capita

a

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

b

Water Ingestion Based

on 1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Other

Sources (mL/day)

Age

Sample

Size

Mean

Percentile

10

25

50

75

90

95

99

Birth to <1 month

91

13

-

393*

1 to <3 months

253

35

-

367*

687*

3 to <6 months

428

45

-

365

938*

6 to <12 months

714

45

-

31

406

963*

1 to <2 years

1,040

22

-

118

482*

2 to <3 years

1,056

39

-

52

344

718*

3 to <6 years

4,391

43

-

58

343

830

6 to <11 years

1,670

61

-

181

468

1,047*

11 to <16 years

1,005

102

-

344

786

1,698*

16 to <18 years

363

97

-

295

740*

1,760*

18 to <21 years

389

47

-

246*

1,047*

>21 years

9,207

156

-

541

1,257

2,381

>65 years

c

2,170

171

-

697

1,416

2,269

All ages

20,607

128

-

345

1,008

2,151

a

Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.

b

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the

preparation of food or beverages.

c

U.S. EPA (2004).

- = Zero.

* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in

the United States (LSRO, 1995).

Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994−1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-93

Table 3-49. Per Capita

a

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

b

Water Ingestion Based

on 1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): All Sources

(mL/day)

Age

Sample

Size

Mean

Percentile

10

25

50

75

90

95

99

Birth to <1 month

91

301

-

135

542

846*

877*

1,088*

1 to <3 months

253

368

-

267

694

889

1,020*

1,265*

3 to <6 months

428

528

-

89

549

812

1,025

1,303

1,509*

6 to <12 months

714

530

37

181

505

771

1,029

1,278

1,690*

1 to <2 years

1,040

358

68

147

287

477

735

961

1,281*

2 to <3 years

1,056

437

104

211

372

588

825

999

1,662*

3 to <6 years

4,391

514

126

251

438

681

980

1,200

1,794

6 to <11 years

1,670

600

169

304

503

803

1,130

1,409

2,167*

11 to <16 years

1,005

834

224

401

663

1,099

1,649

1,960

3,179*

16 to <18 years

363

964

236

387

742

1,273

1,842

2,344*

3,854*

18 to <21 years

389

1,075

189

406

803

1,394

2,117

2,985*

4,955*

>21 years

9,207

1,466

500

828

1,278

1,871

2,553

3,195

5,174

>65 years

c

2,170

1,451

651

935

1,344

1,832

2,323

2,708

3,747

All ages

20,607

1,233

285

573

1,038

1,633

2,341

2,908

4,805

a

Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.

b

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the

preparation of food or beverages.

c

U.S. EPA (2004).

- = Zero.

* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in

the United States (LSRO, 1995).

Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994−1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-94

Table 3-50. Per Capita

a

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

b

Water Ingestion Based

on 1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Community

Water (mL/kg-day)

Age

Sample

size

Mean

Percentile

10

25

50

75

90

95

99

Birth to <1 month

88

52

-

101

196*

232*

253*

1 to <3 months

245

48

-

91

151

205*

310*

3 to <6 months

411

52

-

20

98

135

159

216*

6 to <12 months

678

41

-

2

24

71

102

126

185*

1 to <2 years

1,002

23

-

5

17

34

53

71

106*

2 to <3 years

994

23

-

6

17

33

50

60

113*

3 to <6 years

4,112

22

-

6

17

31

48

61

93

6 to <11 years

1,553

16

1

5

12

22

34

43

71*

11 to <16 years

975

12

1

4

9

16

25

34

54*

16 to <18 years

360

11

-

3

8

15

23

31*

55*

18 to <21 years

383

12

1

4

10

16

17

35*

63*

>21 years

9,049

15

1

6

12

21

31

39

62

>65 years

c

2,139

16

-

7

15

23

31

37

52

All ages

19,850

16

1

5

12

21

32

43

75

a

Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.

b

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the

preparation of food or beverages.

c

U.S. EPA (2004).

- = Zero.

* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in

the United States (LSRO, 1995).

Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994−1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-95

Table 3-51. Per Capita

a

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

b

Water Ingestion Based

on 1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Bottled

Water (mL/kg-day)

Age

Sample

Size

Mean

Percentile

10

25

50

75

90

95

99

Birth to <1 month

88

33

-

6

131*

243*

324*

1 to <3 months

245

22

-

97

161*

242*

3 to <6 months

411

16

-

74

117

193*

6 to <12 months

678

13

-

4

52

87

139*

1 to <2 years

1,002

5

-

18

28

67*

2 to <3 years

994

5

-

19

35

84*

3 to <6 years

4,112

5

-

18

30

59

6 to <11 years

1,553

3

-

10

18

41*

11 to <16 years

975

2

-

8

14

26*

16 to <18 years

360

2

-

6

10*

27*

18 to <21 years

383

3

-

8

19*

34*

>21 years

9,049

3

-

10

17

32

>65 years

c

2,139

2

-

9

15

27

All ages

19,850

3

-

10

18

39

a

Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.

b

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the

preparation of food or beverages.

c

U.S. EPA (2004).

- = Zero.

* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in

the United States (LSRO, 1995).

Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994−1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-96

Table 3-52. Per Capita

a

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

b

Water Ingestion Based

on 1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Other

Sources (mL/kg-day)

Age

Sample

Size

Mean

Percentile

10

25

50

75

90

95

99

Birth to <1 month

88

4

-

122*

1 to <3 months

245

7

-

52*

148*

3 to <6 months

411

7

-

55

155*

6 to <12 months

678

5

-

3

35

95*

1 to <2 years

1,002

2

-

11

45*

2 to <3 years

994

3

-

4

23

61*

3 to <6 years

4,112

2

-

3

19

48

6 to <11 years

1,553

2

-

7

16

36*

11 to <16 years

975

2

-

7

14

34*

16 to <18 years

360

2

-

5

11*

27*

18 to <21 years

383

1

-

4*

14*

>21 years

9,049

2

-

7

17

33

>65 years

c

2,139

2

-

10

20

35

All ages

19,850

2

-

6

16

35

a

Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.

b

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the

preparation of food or beverages.

c

U.S. EPA (2004).

- = Zero.

* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in

the United States (LSRO, 1995).

Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994−1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-97

Table 3-53. Per Capita

a

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

b

Water Ingestion Based

on 1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): All Sources

(mL/kg-day)

Age

Sample

Size

Mean

Percentile

10

25

50

75

90

95

99

Birth to <1 month

88

89

-

21

168

235*

269*

338*

1 to <3 months

245

77

-

46

134

173

246*

336*

3 to <6 months

411

75

-

9

73

118

156

186

225*

6 to <12 months

678

59

4

20

53

86

118

148

194*

1 to <2 years

1,002

31

6

13

24

39

63

85

122*

2 to <3 years

994

31

7

15

26

41

59

73

130*

3 to <6 years

4,112

29

7

14

25

38

56

69

102

6 to <11 years

1,553

21

6

10

18

27

39

50

76*

11 to <16 years

975

16

4

8

13

20

31

39

60*

16 to <18 years

360

15

4

6

12

18

28

37*

59*

18 to <21 years

383

16

3

6

12

21

32

41*

73*

>21 years

9,049

20

7

11

17

26

36

44

68

>65 years

c

2,139

21

9

13

19

27

34

39

54

All ages

20,850

21

6

10

17

26

38

50

87

a

Includes all participants whether or not they ingested any water from the source during survey period.

b

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the

preparation of food or beverages.

c

U.S. EPA (2004).

- = Zero.

* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in

the United States (LSRO, 1995).

Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994−1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-98

Table 3-54. Consumers-Only

a

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

b

Water Ingestion

Based on 1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII):

Community Water (mL/day)

Age

Sample

Size

Mean

Percentile

10

25

50

75

90

95

99

Birth to <1 month

40

470*

32*

215*

482*

692*

849*

858*

919*

1 to <3 months

114

552

67*

339

533

801

943*

1,053*

1,264*

3 to <6 months

281

556

44

180

561

837

1,021

1,171*

1,440*

6 to <12 months

562

467

44

105

426

710

971

1,147

1,586*

1 to <2 years

916

308

43

107

229

428

674

893

1,248*

2 to <3 years

934

356

49

126

281

510

700

912

1,388*

3 to <6 years

3,960

417

57

146

336

581

867

1,099

1,684

6 to <11 years

1,555

480

74

177

373

682

994

1,251

2,024*

11 to <16 years

937

652

106

236

487

873

1,432

1,744

2,589*

16 to <18 years

341

792

106

266

591

987

1,647

2,002*

3,804*

18 to <21 years

364

895

114

295

674

1,174

1,860

2,565*

3,917*

>21 years

8,505

1,183

208

529

1,006

1,582

2,289

2,848

4,665

>65 years

c

1,958

1,242

310

704

1,149

1,657

2,190

2,604

3,668

All ages

18,509

1,000

127

355

786

1,375

2,069

2,601

4,274

a

Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.

b

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the

preparation of food or beverages.

c

U.S. EPA (2004).

* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in

the United States (LSRO, 1995).

Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994−1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-99

Table 3-55. Consumers-Only

a

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

b

Water Ingestion

Based on 1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII):

Bottled Water (mL/day)

Age

Sample

Size

Mean

Percentile

10

25

50

75

90

95

99

Birth to <1 month

25

-

1 to <3 months

64

450*

31*

62*

329*

743*

886*

1,045*

1,562*

3 to <6 months

103

507

48*

88

493

747

1,041*

1,436*

1,506*

6 to <12 months

200

425

47

114

353

630

945*

1,103*

1,413*

1 to <2 years

229

262

45

88

188

324

600

709*

1,083*

2 to <3 years

232

352

57

116

241

471

736

977*

1,665*

3 to <6 years

1,021

380

72

149

291

502

796

958

1,635*

6 to <11 years

332

430

88

168

350

557

850

1,081*

1,823*

11 to <16 years

192

570

116*

229

414

719

1,162*

1,447*

2,705*

16 to <18 years

63

615*

85*

198*

446*

779*

1,365*

1,613*

2,639*

18 to <21 years

97

769

118*

236

439

943

1,788*

2,343*

3,957*

>21 years

1,893

831

167

354

650

1,071

1,773

2,093

3,505

>65 years

c

302

910

234

465

785

1,182

1,766

2,074

2,548

All ages

4,451

736

118

266

532

975

1,567

1,964

3,312

a

Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.

b

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the

preparation of food or beverages.

c

U.S. EPA (2004).

- Insufficient sample size to estimate mean and percentiles.

* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in

the United States (LSRO, 1995).

Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994−1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-100

Table 3-56. Consumers-Only

a

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

b

Water Ingestion

Based on 1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII):

Other Sources (mL/day)

Age

Sample

Size

Mean

Percentile

10

25

50

75

90

95

99

Birth to <1 month

3

-

1 to <3 months

19

-

3 to <6 months

38

562*

59*

179*

412*

739*

983*

1,205*

2,264*

6 to <12 months

73

407*

31*

121*

300*

563*

961*

1,032*

1,144*

1 to <2 years

98

262

18*

65

143

371

602*

899*

1,204*

2 to <3 years

129

354

56*

134

318

472

704*

851*

1,334*

3 to <6 years

533

396

59

148

314

546

796

1,019

1,543*

6 to <11 years

219

448

89

177

347

682

931

1,090*

1,596*

11 to <16 years

151

687

171*

296

482

947

1,356*

1,839*

2,891*

16 to <18 years

53

657*

152*

231*

398*

823*

1,628*

1,887*

2,635*

18 to <21 years

33

569*

103*

142*

371*

806*

1,160*

1,959*

1,962*

>21 years

1,386

1,137

236

503

976

1,533

2,161

2,739

4,673

>65 years

c

323

1,259

360

680

1,188

1,660

2,136

2,470

3,707*

All ages

2,735

963

148

347

741

1,344

1,970

2,468

3,814

a

Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.

b

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the

preparation of food or beverages.

c

U.S. EPA (2004).

- Insufficient sample size to estimate means and percentiles.

* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in

the United States (LSRO, 1995).

Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994−1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-101

Table 3-57. Consumers-Only

a

Estimates of Combined Direct and Indirect

b

Water Ingestion

Based on 1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): All

Sources (mL/day)

Age

Sample

Size

Mean

Percentile

10

25

50

75

90

95

99

Birth to <1 month

58

511*

51*

266*

520*

713*

858*

986*

1,274*

1 to <3 months

178

555

68*

275

545

801

946*

1,072*

1,470*

3 to <6 months

363

629

69

384

612

851

1,064

1,330*

1,522*

6 to <12 months

667

567

90

250

551

784

1,050

1,303

1,692*

1 to <2 years

1,017

366

84

159

294

481

735

978

1,281*

2 to <3 years

1,051

439

105

213

375

589

825

1,001

1,663*

3 to <6 years

4,350

518

134

255

442

682

980

1,206

1,796

6 to <11 years

1,659

603

177

310

506

805

1,131

1,409

2,168*

11 to <16 years

1,000

837

229

404

665

1,105

1,649

1,961

3,184*

16 to <18 years

357

983

252

395

754

1,276

1,865

2,346*

3,866*

18 to <21 years

383

1,094

219

424

823

1,397

2,144

3,002*

4,967*

>21 years

9,178

1,472

506

829

1,282

1,877

2,559

3,195

5,175

>65 years

c

2,167

1,453

651

939

1,345

1,833

2,324

2,708

3,750

All ages

20,261

1,242

296

585

1,047

1,642

2,345

2,923

4,808

a

Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.

b

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the

preparation of food or beverages.

c

U.S. EPA (2004).

* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in

the United States (LSRO, 1995).

Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994−1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-102

Table 3-58. Consumers-Only

a

Estimates of Direct and Indirect

b

Water Ingestion Based on

1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Community

Water (mL/kg-day)

Age

Sample

Size

Mean

Percentile

10

25

50

75

90

95

99

Birth to <1 month

37

137*

11*

65*

138*

197*

235*

238*

263*

1 to <3 months

108

119

12*

71

107

151

228*

285*

345*

3 to <6 months

269

80

7

27

77

118

148

173*

222*

6 to <12 months

534

53

5

12

47

81

112

129

186*

1 to <2 years

880

27

4

9

20

36

56

75

109*

2 to <3 years

879

26

4

9

21

36

52

62

121*

3 to <6 years

3,703

24

3

8

19

33

49

65

97

6 to <11 years

1,439

17

3

6

13

23

35

45

72*

11 to <16 years

911

13

2

5

10

17

26

34

54*

16 to <18 years

339

12

1

4

9

16

24

32*

58*

18 to <21 years

361

13

2

5

10

17

29

35*

63*

>21 years

8,355

16

3

7

13

22

32

39

63

>65 years

c

1,927

18

5

10

16

24

32

37

53

All ages

17,815

17

3

7

13

22

33

44

77

a

Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.

b

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the

preparation of food or beverages.

c

U.S. EPA (2004).

* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in

the United States (LSRO, 1995).

Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994−1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-103

Table 3-59. Consumers-Only

a

Estimates of Direct and Indirect

b

Water Ingestion Based on

1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Bottled Water

(mL/kg-day)

Age

Sample

Size

Mean

Percentile

10

25

50

75

90

95

99

Birth to <1 month

25

-

1 to <3 months

64

92*

7*

12*

76*

151*

164*

220*

411*

3 to <6 months

95

72

6*

15

69

100

149*

184*

213*

6 to <12 months

185

47

5*

11

34

73

104*

120*

166*

1 to <2 years

216

22

5

8

16

27

49

66*

103*

2 to <3 years

211

25

4

8

17

35

54

81*

91*

3 to <6 years

946

21

4

8

16

29

45

57

90*

6 to <11 years

295

15

3

5

11

19

30

42*

69*

11 to <16 years

180

11

2*

4

8

14

24*

27*

44*

16 to <18 years

63

10*

1*

3*

7*

11*

23*

27*

37*

18 to <21 years

93

11

2*

3

6

14

27*

30*

54*

>21 years

1,861

12

2

5

9

16

25

31

45

>65 years

c

297

13

3

7

12

17

26

30

42*

All ages

4,234

13

2

5

9

17

27

36

72

a

Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.

b

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the

preparation of food or beverages.

c

U.S. EPA (2004).

- Insufficient sample size to estimate means and percentiles.

* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in

the United States (LSRO, 1995).

Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994−1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-104

Table 3-60. Consumers-Only

a

Estimates of Direct and Indirect

b

Water Ingestion Based on

1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): Other Sources

(mL/kg-day)

Age

Sample

Size

Mean

Percentile

10

25

50

75

90

95

99

Birth to <1 month

3

-

1 to <3 months

19

-

3 to <6 months

38

80*

10*

23*

59*

106*

170*

200*

246*

6 to <12 months

68

44*

4*

10*

33*

65*

95*

106*

147*

1 to <2 years

95

23

1*

5

13

28

46*

84*

125*

2 to <3 years

124

26

4*

10

21

34

55*

66*

114*

3 to <6 years

505

22

3

8

17

30

46

56

79*

6 to <11 years

208

16

3

6

12

23

32

39*

62*

11 to <16 years

148

13

3*

6

9

18

27*

36*

56*

16 to <18 years

52

10*

2*

4*

7*

12*

24*

29*

43*

18 to <21 years

33

8*

1*

2*

6*

10*

16*

27*

31*

>21 years

1,365

15

3

6

13

21

30

39

58

>65 years

c

322

18

5

9

16

24

31

37

50*

All ages

2,657

16

3

6

12

21

32

41

67

a

Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.

b

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the

preparation of food or beverages.

c

U.S. EPA (2004).

- Indicates insufficient sample size to estimate distribution percentiles.

* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in

the United States (LSRO, 1995).

Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994−1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-105

Table 3-61. Consumers-Only

a

Estimates of Direct and Indirect

b

Water Ingestion Based on

1994−1996, 1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII): All Sources

(mL/kg-day)

Age

Sample

Size

Mean

Percentile

10

25

50

75

90

95

99

Birth to <1 month

55

153*

13*

83*

142*

208*

269*

273*

400*

1 to <3 months

172

116

12*

50

107

161

216*

291*

361*

3 to <6 months

346

90

9

52

86

125

161

195*

233*

6 to <12 months

631

63

10

27

58

88

120

152

198*

1 to <2 years

980

31

7

14

25

40

64

86

122*

2 to <3 years

989

31

7

15

27

41

59

73

130*

3 to <6 years

4,072

29

7

15

25

38

56

70

102*

6 to <11 years

1,542

21

6

10

18

27

39

50

76*

11 to <16 years

970

16

4

8

13

20

31

39

60*

16 to <18 years

354

15

4

7

12

18

29

37*

60*

18 to <21 years

378

16

3

6

12

21

32

41*

73*

>21 years

9,020

20

7

11

17

26

36

44

68

>65 years

c

2,136

21

9

13

19

27

34

39

54

All ages

19,509

21

6

11

17

26

38

50

87

a

Excludes individuals who did not ingest water from the source during the survey period.

b

Direct water is defined as water ingested directly as a beverage; indirect water is defined as water added in the

preparation of food or beverages.

c

U.S. EPA (2004).

* The sample size does not meet minimum requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in

the United States (LSRO, 1995).

Source: Kahn (2008) (Based on 1994−1996, 1998 USDA CSFII).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-106

Table 3-62. Two-Day Average

a

per Capita Drinking Water Intake: Pregnant and Lactating Women, and Women of

Child-Bearing Age (13 to <50 years)

Population Group

N

Percent

Consuming

b

Mean

SE

Percentiles

Maximum

1

st

5

th

10

th

25

th

50

th

75

th

90

th

95

th

99

th

g/day

All water sources

c

Pregnant

426

98

1,539

76

0

d

251

450

813

1,291

2,200

2,872

3,203

4,120

d

5,719

d

Lactating

101

96

1,908

195

0

d

213

d

356

d

917

2,061

2,720

2,987

d

3,911

d

4,351

d

5,551

d

Child-bearing age

5,543

99

1,383

31

0

125

278

616

1,138

1,957

2,787

3,371

4,530

10,280

d

Community water

e

Pregnant

426

63

731

81

0

d

0

364

1,091

2,138

2,859

3,558

d

5,162

d

Lactating

101

72

1,075

201

0

d

0

d

0

d

0

719

2,061

2,720

d

3,061

d

4,351

d

4,351

d

Child-bearing age

5,543

63

683

30

0

282

1,025

2,055

2,634

3,962

6,213

d

Bottled water

f

Pregnant

426

60

545

55

0

d

0

259

974

1,466

1,896

2,605

d

3,792

d

Lactating

101

51

541

143

0

d

0

d

0

d

0

119

889

1,931

d

2,044

d

3,256

d

3,413

d

Child-bearing age

5,543

53

424

18

0

119

644

1,259

1,726

2,844

8,834

d

Other water sources

f

Pregnant

426

35

263

66

0

d

0

186

702

1,777

2,693

d

5,719

d

Lactating

101

21

293

131

0

d

0

d

0

d

0

1,024

d

2,854

d

3,911

d

4,612

d

Child-bearing age

5,543

34

276

30

0

237

918

1,575

3,273

6,220

d

g/kg-day

All water sources

c

Pregnant

426

98

21.1

1.1

0

d

3.1

5.9

10.7

16.7

28.9

41.6

49.0

63.9

d

94.1

d

Lactating

101

96

28.8

2.8

0

d

3.9

d

6.9

d

14.1

29.8

46.2

48.3

d

51.3

d

65.3

d

75.0

d

Child-bearing age

5,543

99

19.7

0.47

0

1.8

4.0

8.5

16.1

27.5

41.1

48.4

67.1

178.8

d

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-107

Table 3-62. Two-Day Average

a

per Capita Drinking Water Intake: Pregnant and Lactating Women, and Women of

Child-Bearing Age (13 to <50 years) (Continued)

Population Group

N

Percent

Consuming

b

Mean

SE

Percentiles

Maximum

1

st

5

th

10

th

25

th

50

th

75

th

90

th

95

th

99

th

Community water

e

Pregnant

426

63

9.8

1.1

0

d

0

5.0

15.6

30.5

37.3

44.0

d

92.2

d

Lactating

101

72

16.5

3.3

0

d

0

d

0

d

0

11.6

29.8

46.2

d

47.0

d

65.3

d

65.3

d

Child-bearing age

5,543

63

9.8

0.46

0

4.1

15.0

29.1

38.2

60.1

110.1

d

Bottled water

g

Pregnant

426

60

7.7

0.88

0

d

0

3.6

12.5

21.4

33.2

46.8

d

58.1

d

Lactating

101

51

7.8

1.8

0

d

0

d

0

d

0

1.6

12.0

26.4

d

33.4

d

46.0

d

51.0

d

Child-bearing age

5,543

53

6.0

0.27

0

1.7

9.0

18.3

24.9

40.7

166.7

d

Other water sources

f

Pregnant

426

35

3.6

0.88

0

d

0

2.6

11.2

25.2

36.6

d

94.1

d

Lactating

101

21

4.5

2.1

0

d

0

d

0

d

0

16.3

d

48.3

d

51.3

d

65.3

d

Child-bearing age

5,543

34

3.9

0.42

0

3.3

12.6

23.3

44.4

98.0

d

a

Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and

nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated

using

http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

b

Represents the percentage of individuals consuming at least once over the 2-day survey period.

c

All water sources: water, community supply (direct and indirect water consumption); water, bottled (direct water consumption only); water, well or rain cistern

(direct and indirect water consumption); water, spring (direct and indirect water consumption); water, don't drink tap water (direct and indirect water consumption);

water, other (direct and indirect water consumption); water, don’t know (direct and indirect water consumption).

d

Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III

and CSFII Reports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).

e

Community water: water, community supply (direct and indirect water consumption).

f

Other sources: water, well or rain cistern (direct and indirect water consumption); water, spring (direct and indirect water consumption); water, don't drink tap

water (direct and indirect water consumption); water, other (direct and indirect water consumption); water, don't know (direct and indirect water consumption).

g

Bottled water: water, bottled (direct water consumption only).

HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.

N = Sample size.

SE = Standard error.

Source: Based on EPA analysis of 2005−2010 NHANES using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-108

Table 3-63. Two-Day Average

a

Consumer-Only Drinking Water Intake: Pregnant and Lactating Women, and Women of

Child-Bearing Age (13 to <50 years)

Population Group

N

Mean

SE

Percentiles

Maximum

1

st

5

th

10

th

25

th

50

th

75

th

90

th

95

th

99

th

g/day

All water sources

b

Pregnant

423

1,564

82.4

70.7

c

318.3

522.7

836.7

1,324

2,200

2,894

3,213

4,120

c

5,719

c

Lactating

100

1,979

186.3

212.8

c

355.8

c

439.1

c

1,100

2,081

2,720

2,999

c

3,911

c

4,351

c

5,551

c

Child-bearing age

5,479

1,401

30.4

30.7

171.8

302.1

634.5

1,163

1,963

2,800

3,371

4,530

10,280

c

Community water

d

Pregnant

259

1,158

95.9

3.2

c

78.8

c

189.6

452.7

921.1

1,872

2,642

2,935

c

3,866

c

5,162

c

Lactating

68

1,495

232.5

46.7

c

189.4

c

266.4

c

476.1

c

1,078

2,388

c

2,720

c

3,061

c

4,351

c

4,351

c

Child-bearing age

3,365

1,082

28.6

8.2

54.0

133.3

347.9

786.8

1,599

2,430

2,956

4,355

6,213

c

Bottled water

e

Pregnant

255

913

61.0

59.3

c

118.5

c

192.5

362.2

859.1

1,250

1,745

2,184

c

2,670

c

3,792

c

Lactating

57

1,059

188.3

118.5

c

125.1

c

125.1

c

311.1

c

750.3

1,909

c

2,029

c

2,304

c

3,318

c

3,413

c

Child-bearing age

3,075

805

20.0

51.8

118.5

177.5

281.4

592.5

1,099

1,684

2,184

3,631

8,834

c

Other water sources

f

Pregnant

157

756

135.9

20.0

c

49.7

c

70.7

c

164.8

422.4

969.4

2,191

c

2,693

c

3,014

c

5,719

c

Lactating

29

1,382

451.5

69.3

c

137.3

c

212.8

c

229.9

c

1,024

2,854

c

3,911

c

3,911

4,612

c

4,612

c

Child-bearing age

2,012

804

56.9

5.5

34.0

71.6

212.8

502.8

1,040

2,013

2,771

4,124

6,220

c

g/kg-day

All water sources

b

Pregnant

423

21.4

1.2

0.7

c

4.1

6.8

10.7

17.5

29.3

42.4

49.0

63.9

c

94.1

c

Lactating

100

29.8

2.7

3.9

c

6.7

c

7.0

c

17.0

30.0

46.2

48.3

c

51.3

c

65.3

c

75.0

c

Child-bearing age

5,479

20.0

0.5

2.3

4.3

8.9

16.3

27.7

41.1

48.8

67.1

178.8

c

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-109

Table 3-63. Two-Day Average

a

Consumer-Only Drinking Water Intake: Pregnant and Lactating Women, and Women of

Child-Bearing Age (13 to <50 years) (Continued)

Population Group

N

Mean

SE

Percentiles

Maximum

1

st

5

th

10

th

25

th

50

th

75

th

90

th

95

th

99

th

Community water

d

Pregnant

259

15.5

1.2

0.1

c

0.9

c

2.5

6.2

12.0

23.3

33.3

37.7

c

44.4

c

92.2

c

Lactating

68

22.9

4.0

0.6

c

3.0

c

4.4

c

7.0

c

17.0

44.6

c

46.9

c

47.0

c

65.3

c

65.3

c

Child-bearing age

3,365

15.6

0.5

0.1

0.7

1.8

5.1

11.0

22.4

35.4

44.6

63.2

110.1

c

Bottled water

e

Pregnant

255

12.9

1.0

1.1

c

1.7

c

2.7

5.0

9.9

16.8

26.5

33.4

c

50.1

c

58.1

c

Lactating

57

15.2

2.3

1.6

c

2.2

c

2.2

c

4.0

c

12.0

23.5

c

33.4

c

40.7

c

46.0

c

51.0

c

Child-bearing age

3,075

11.4

0.3

0.7

1.7

2.3

4.1

8.4

15.0

24.0

31.9

48.5

166.7

c

Other water sources

f

Pregnant

157

10.3

1.8

0.2

c

0.6

c

1.4

c

2.2

5.7

12.2

29.3

c

36.6

c

37.8

c

94.1

c

Lactating

29

21.3

6.8

0.7

c

1.9

c

3.5

c

3.9

c

16.3

48.3

c

51.3

c

51.3

c

65.3

c

65.3

c

Child-bearing age

2,012

11.4

0.8

0.1

0.5

1.0

3.0

7.3

15.5

29.3

38.0

51.8

98.0

c

a

Based on the average of 2 days of consumption reported for each NHANES respondent. If the respondent reported zero consumption on 1 of the 2 days and

nonzero consumption on the other day, his/her average consumption would be the average of zero and nonzero consumption. Single day rates can be generated

using

http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

b

All Water Sources: water, community supply (direct and indirect water consumption); water, bottled (direct water consumption only); water, well or rain cistern

(direct and indirect water consumption); water, spring (direct and indirect water consumption); water, don't drink tap water (direct and indirect water consumption);

water, other (direct and indirect water consumption); water, don’t know (direct and indirect water consumption).

c

Estimates are less statistically reliable based on guidance published in the Joint Policy on Variance Estimation and Statistical Reporting Standards on NHANES III

and CSFII Reports: HNIS/NCHS Analytical Working Group Recommendations (NCHS, 1993).

d

Community water: water, community supply (direct and indirect water consumption).

e

Bottled water: water, bottled (direct water consumption only).

f

Other sources: water, well or rain cistern (direct and indirect water consumption); water, spring (direct and indirect water consumption); water, don't drink tap

water (direct and indirect water consumption); water, other (direct and indirect water consumption); water, don’t know (direct and indirect water consumption).

HNIS = Human Nutrition Information Service.

N = Sample size.

SE = Standard error.

Source: Based on U.S. EPA analysis of 2005−2010 NHANES using http://fcid.foodrisk.org/.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-110

Table 3-64. Total Fluid Intake of Women 15 to 49 Years Old

Reproductive

Status

a

Mean

Standard

Deviation

Percentile Distribution

5

10

25

50

75

90

95

mL/day

Control

Pregnant

Lactating

1,940

2,076

2,242

686

743

658

995

1,085

1,185

1,172

1,236

1,434

1,467

1,553

1,833

1,835

1,928

2,164

2,305

2,444

2,658

2,831

3,028

3,169

3,186

3,475

3,353

mL/kg-day

Control

Pregnant

Lactating

32.3

32.1

37.0

12.3

11.8

11.6

15.8

16.4

19.6

18.5

17.8

21.8

23.8

17.8

21.8

30.5

35.1

38.7

40.4

45.0

48.4

48.9

53.7

55.4

53.5

59.2

a

Number of observations: nonpregnant, nonlactating controls (N = 6,201); pregnant (N = 188); lactating (N = 77).

Source: Ershow et al. (1991).

Table 3-65. Total Tap Water Intake of Women 15 to 49 Years Old

Reproductive

Status

a

Mean

Standard

Deviation

Percentile Distribution

5

10

25

50

75

90

95

mL/day

Control

Pregnant

Lactating

1,157

1,189

1,310

635

699

591

310

274

430

453

419

612

709

713

855

1,065

1,063

1,330

1,503

1,501

1,693

1,983

2,191

1,945

2,310

2,424

2,191

mL/kg-day

Control

Pregnant

Lactating

19.1

18.3

21.4

10.8

10.4

9.8

5.2

4.9

7.4

7.5

5.9

9.8

11.7

10.7

14.8

17.3

16.4

20.5

24.4

23.8

26.8

33.1

34.5

35.1

39.1

39.6

37.4

Fraction of daily fluid intake that is tap water (%)

Control

Pregnant

Lactating

57.2

54.1

57.0

18.0

18.2

15.8

24.6

21.2

27.4

32.2

27.9

38.0

45.9

42.9

49.5

59.0

54.8

58.1

70.7

67.6

65.9

79.0

76.6

76.4

83.2

80.5

a

Number of observations: nonpregnant, nonlactating controls (N = 6,201); pregnant (N = 188); lactating (N = 77).

Source: Ershow et al. (1991).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-111

Table 3-66. Total Fluid (mL/Day) Derived from Various Dietary Sources by Women Aged

15 to 49 Years

a

Sources

Control Women

Pregnant Women

Lactating Women

Mean

b

Percentile

Mean

b

Percentile

Mean

b

Percentile

50

95

50

95

50

95

Drinking water

Milk and milk drinks

Other dairy products

Meats, poultry, fish, eggs

Legumes, nuts, and seeds

Grains and grain products

Citrus and noncitrus fruit juices

Fruits, potatoes, vegetables, tomatoes

Fats, oils, dressings, sugars, sweets

Tea

Coffee and coffee substitutes

Carbonated soft drinks

c

Noncarbonated soft drinks

c

Beer

Wine spirits, liqueurs, mixed drinks

All sources

583

162

23

126

13

90

57

198

9

148

291

174

38

17

10

1,940

480

107

8

114

0

65

0

171

3

0

159

110

0

NA

1,440

523

93

263

77

257

234

459

41

630

1,045

590

222

110

66

NA

695

308

24

121

18

98

69

212

9

132

197

130

48

7

5

2,076

640

273

9

104

0

69

0

185

3

0

73

0

NA

1,760

749

93

252

88

246

280

486

40

617

955

464

257

0

25

NA

677

306

36

133

15

119

64

245

10

253

205

117

38

17

6

2,242

560

285

27

117

0

82

0

197

6

77

80

57

0

NA

1,600

820

113

256

72

387

219

582

50

848

955

440

222

147

59

NA

a

Number of observations: nonpregnant, nonlactating controls (N = 6,201); pregnant (N = 188); lactating (N = 77).

b

Individual means may not add to all-sources total due to rounding.

c

Includes regular, low-calorie, and noncalorie soft drinks.

NA = Not appropriate to sum the columns for the 50

th

and 95

th

percentiles of intake.

Source: Ershow et al. (1991).

Table 3-67. Daily Water Intake for Men and Pregnant Women (L/day)

Category

N

Mean ± SD

Percentile

10

25

50

75

90

Total water

Pregnant women

Men

34

33

1.86 ± 0.73

1.68 ± 0.70

1.17

0.70

1.45

1.34

1.75

1.59

2.08

2.33

2.39

Tap water

a

Pregnant women

Men

34

33

0.78 ± 0.51

0.20

0.25

0.43

0.34

0.62

0.81

1.12

1.10

1.39

1.23

Cold tap water at home

b

All pregnant women

Employed full time

Employed part time or less

All men

34

18

16

33

0.37 ± 0.40

0.28 ± 0.30

0.47 ± 0.48

0.29 ± 0.35

0

0.02

0.04

0.01

0

0.26

0.15

0.42

0.15

0.55

0.53

0.73

0.51

0.97

0.60

1.04

0.69

a

Filtered tap water excluded.

b

Filtered tap water and iced tea excluded.

N = Number of subjects.

Source: Shimokura et al. (1998).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-112

Table 3-68. Average Daily Tap Water Consumption (L/day) by Location, Temperature,

and Beverage Type

Category

All Pregnant

Women

N = 34

Pregnant Women

Employed Full Time

N = 18

Pregnant Women Employed

Part Time or Less

N = 16

All Men

N = 33

Consumption at home

Cold drinking water

Cold tap-water-based beverages

Total cold tap water

Hot tap water

Total tap water

0.25

0.11

0.37

0.15

0.52

0.18

0.10

0.28

0.11

0.38

0.34

0.13

0.47

0.20

0.67

0.19

0.10

0.29

0.14

0.43

Consumption outside the home

Cold drinking water

Cold tap-water-based beverages

Total cold tap water

Hot tap water

Total tap water

0.15

0.04

0.19

0.08

0.26

0.18

0.06

0.23

0.12

0.36

0.11

0.02

0.14

0.02

0.16

0.03

0.18

0.17

0.35

Total cold tap water

Total hot tap water

Total tap water

0.56

0.23

0.78

0.51

0.23

0.74

0.61

0.22

0.83

0.47

0.31

0.78

N = Number of subjects.

Source: Shimokura et al. (1998).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-113

Table 3-69. Water Ingestion Rates by Pregnancy Status (L/day) and Source Location

Characteristic

Mean

SD

Percentiles

Mean

SD

Percentiles

25

th

50

th

75

th

25

th

50

th

75

th

Pregnant (N = 71)

Not pregnant (N = 43)

Home

Cold tap water

1.8

1.4

0.9

1.4

2.3

1.3

1.0

0.5

0.9

2.0

Cold tap-water-based beverages

1.0

0.8

0.7

0.9

1.4

0.9

0.6

0.4

0.7

1.2

Hot tap-water-based beverages

0.1

0.2

0.0

0.2

0.5

0.0

0.2

Total tap water intake

2.9

1.8

2.3

3.7

2.4

1.2

1.5

2.3

2.9

Pregnant (N = 36)

Not pregnant (N = 23)

Work

Cold tap water

0.7

0.6

0.2

0.4

1.3

1.0

1.2

0.4

0.7

1.4

Cold tap-water-based beverages

0.1

0.3

0.0

0.1

0.3

0.0

Hot tap-water-based beverages

0.1

0.2

0.0

0.1

0.0

Total tap water intake

0.9

0.7

0.4

0.7

1.4

1.2

0.5

0.9

1.4

Pregnant (N = 71)

Not pregnant (N = 43)

Total

Cold tap water

2.1

1.5

1.1

1.8

2.8

1.8

1.6

0.7

1.5

2.7

Cold tap-water-based beverages

1.1

0.8

0.7

0.9

1.4

0.9

0.6

0.4

0.9

1.4

Hot tap-water-based beverages

0.2

0.3

0.0

0.2

0.3

0.5

0.0

0.4

Total tap water intake

3.4

1.8

2.0

3.0

4.3

3.0

1.7

1.8

2.7

4.1

N = Number of observations.

Source: Zender et al. (2001).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-114

Table 3-70. Principal Sources of Drinking Water at Home for Pregnant and Nonpregnant

Women (%)

Source of Water

Pregnant

Nonpregnant

Tap water

74.6

72.1

Bottled water

14.1

11.6

Filtered water

11.3

16.3

Source: Zender et al. (2001).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-115

Table 3-71. Total Tap Water and Bottled Water Intake by Pregnant Women (L/day)

Variables

Cold Tap Water

Bottled Water

N

Mean (SD)

N

Mean (SD)

Demographics

Home

2,293

1.3 (1.2)

a

Work

2,295

0.4 (0.6)

a

Total

2,293

1.7 (1.4)

2,284

0.6 (0.9)

Season

Winter

587

1.6 (1.3)

584

0.6 (1.0)

Spring

622

1.7 (1.4)

622

0.6 (1.0)

Summer

566

1.8 (1.6)

560

0.6 (0.9)

Fall

518

1.8 (1.5)

518

0.5 (0.9)

Age at LMP

17 to 25

852

1.6 (1.4)

848

0.6 (1.0)

26 to 30

714

1.8 (1.5)

710

0.6 (1.0)

31 to 35

539

1.7 (1.3)

538

0.5 (0.8)

≥36

188

1.8 (1.4)

188

0.5 (0.9)

Education

≤High school

691

1.5 (1.5)

687

0.6 (1.0)

Some college

498

1.7 (1.5)

496

0.6 (1.0)

≥4-year college

1,103

1.8 (1.3)

1,100

0.5 (0.9)

Race/ethnicity

White, non-Hispanic

1,276

1.8 (1.4)

1,273

0.5 (0.9)

Black, non-Hispanic

727

1.6 (1.5)

722

0.6 (0.9)

Hispanic, any race

204

1.1 (1.3)

202

1.1 (1.2)

Other

84

1.9 (1.5)

85

0.5 (0.9)

Marital status

Single, never married

719

1.6 (1.5)

713

0.6 (1.0)

Married

1,497

1.8 (1.4)

1,494

0.5 (0.9)

Other

76

1.7 (1.9)

76

0.5 (0.9)

Annual income ($)

≤40,000

967

1.6 (1.5)

962

0.6 (1.0)

40,000−80,000

730

1.8 (1.4)

730

0.5 (0.9)

>80,000

501

1.7 (1.3)

499

0.5 (0.9)

Employment

No

681

1.7 (1.5)

679

0.5 (0.9)

Yes

1,611

1.7 (1.4)

1,604

0.6 (0.9)

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-116

Table 3-71. Total Tap Water and Bottled Water Intake by Pregnant Women (L/day)

(Continued)

Variables

Cold Tap Water

Bottled Water

N

Mean (SD)

N

Mean (SD)

BMI

Low

268

1.6 (1.3)

267

0.6 (1.0)

Normal

1,128

1.7 (1.4)

1,123

0.5 (0.9)

Overweight

288

1.7 (1.5)

288

0.6 (0.9)

Obese

542

1.8 (1.6)

540

0.6 (1.0)

Diabetes

No diabetes

2,221

1.7 (1.4)

2,213

0.6 (0.9)

Regular diabetes

17

2.6 (2.1)

17

0.4 (0.8)

Gestational diabetes

55

1.6 (1.6)

54

0.6 (1.0)

Nausea during pregnancy

No

387

1.6 (1.4)

385

0.6 (1.0)

Yes

1,904

1.7 (1.4)

1,897

0.6 (0.9)

Pregnancy history

No prior pregnancy

691

1.7 (1.4)

685

0.6 (1.0)

Prior pregnancy with no SAB

1,064

1.7 (1.4)

1,063

0.5 (0.9)

Prior pregnancy with SAB

538

1.8 (1.5)

536

0.6 (1.0)

Caffeine

0 mg/day

578

1.8 (1.5)

577

0.6 (1.0)

1−150 mg/day

522

1.6 (1.3)

522

0.5 (0.8)

151−300 mg/day

433

1.6 (1.4)

433

0.6 (0.9)

>300 mg/day

760

1.7 (1.5)

752

0.6 (1.0)

Vitamin use

No

180

1.4 (1.4)

176

0.5 (0.8)

Yes

2,113

1.7 (1.4)

2,108

0.6 (0.9)

Smoking

Nonsmoker

2,164

1.7 (1.4)

2,155

0.6 (0.9)

<10 cigarettes/day

84

1.8 (1.5)

84

0.8 (1.3)

≥10 cigarettes/day

45

1.8 (1.6)

45

0.4 (0.7)

Alcohol use

No

2,257

1.7 (1.4)

2,247

0.6 (0.9)

Yes

36

1.6 (1.2)

37

0.6 (0.8)

Recreational exercise

No

1,061

1.5 (1.4)

1,054

0.6 (0.9)

Yes

1,232

1.8 (1.4)

1,230

0.6 (1.0)

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-117

Table 3-71. Total Tap Water and Bottled Water Intake by Pregnant Women (L/day)

(Continued)

Variables

Cold Tap Water

Bottled Water

N

Mean (SD)

N

Mean (SD)

Illicit drug use

No

2,024

1.7 (1.4)

2,017

0.6 (0.9)

Yes

268

1.7 (1.5)

266

0.6 (1.0)

a

Data are not reported in the source document.

BMI = Body mass index.

LMP = Age of last menstrual period.

N = Number of observations.

SAB = Spontaneous abortion.

Source: Forssén et al. (2007).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-118

Table 3-72. Percentage of Mean Water Intake Consumed as Unfiltered and Filtered Tap

Water by Pregnant Women

Variables

Cold Unfiltered Tap Water

Cold Filtered Tap Water

Bottled Water

N

%

Total

2,280

52

19

28

Season

Winter

583

52

19

29

Spring

621

53

19

28

Summer

559

50

20

29

Fall

517

54

19

26

Age at LMP

≤25

845

55

11

33

26−30

709

49

22

28

31−35

538

51

27

22

≥36

188

53

22

25

Education

≤High school

685

56

8

34

Some college

495

53

16

30

≥4-year college

1,099

49

27

23

Race/ethnicity

White, non-Hispanic

1,272

50

26

23

Black, non-Hispanic

720

60

9

30

Hispanic, any race

202

37

9

54

Other

84

48

27

25

Marital status

Single, never married

711

57

9

33

Married

1,492

50

25

Other

76

57

9

34

Annual income ($)

≤40,000

960

56

11

33

40,000−80,000

728

51

24

>80,000

499

45

29

25

Employment

No

678

52

21

27

Yes

1,601

52

19

29

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-119

Table 3-72. Percentage of Mean Water Intake Consumed as Unfiltered and Filtered Tap

Water by Pregnant Women (Continued)

Variables

Cold Unfiltered Tap Water

Cold Filtered Tap Water

Bottled Water

N

%

BMI

Low

266

50

21

29

Normal

1,121

51

22

27

Overweight

287

53

18

28

Obese

540

56

14

29

Diabetes

No diabetes

2,209

52

19

28

Regular diabetes

17

69

15

16

Gestational diabetes

54

50

22

27

Nausea during pregnancy

No

385

54

18

28

Yes

1,893

52

20

28

Pregnancy history

No prior pregnancy

685

48

21

31

Prior pregnancy with

no SAB

1,060

54

18

27

Prior pregnancy with

SAB

535

53

20

26

Caffeine

0 mg/day

577

50

22

27

1−150 mg/day

520

53

17

29

151−300 mg/day

432

52

17

30

>300 mg/day

751

53

19

27

Vitamin use

No

176

57

8

34

Yes

2,104

52

20

28

Smoking

Nonsmoker

2,151

51

20

28

<10 cigarettes/day

84

60

10

28

≥10 cigarettes/day

45

66

7

22

Alcohol use

No

2,244

52

19

28

Yes

36

58

19

23

Recreational exercise

No

1,053

54

14

31

Yes

1,227

51

24

26

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-120

Table 3-72. Percentage of Mean Water Intake Consumed as Unfiltered and Filtered Tap

Water by Pregnant Women (Continued)

Variables

Cold Unfiltered Tap Water

Cold Filtered Tap Water

Bottled Water

N

%

Illicit drug use

No

2,013

51

20

28

Yes

266

56

12

31

BMI = body mass index.

LMP = Age of last menstrual period.

N = Number of observations.

SAB = spontaneous abortion.

Source: Forssén et al. (2007).

Table 3-73. Intake Rates at Different Times During Pregnancy (L/day)

Source/Time Frame

N

Mean

50

th

Percentile

90

th

Percentile

Cold tap water

Prepregnancy

Early pregnancy

Mid-pregnancy

1,981

1.48

1.69

1.84

1.24

1.42

1.66

3.31

3.79

Hot tap water

Prepregnancy

Early pregnancy

Mid-pregnancy

1,987

0.18

0.16

0.00

0.62

0.41

0.59

Bottled water

Early pregnancy

Mid-pregnancy

1,977

0.57

0.59

0.18

0.09

1.77

2.07

Total water

Early pregnancy

Mid-pregnancy

1,968

2.43

2.60

2.10

2.37

4.26

4.44

N = Number of observations.

Source: Forssén et al. (2009).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-121

Table 3-74. Frequency and Proportion of Women Reporting Changes in Water Intake

between Early and Mid-Pregnancy

Change (L/day)

No Change

Increase

Decrease

N

%

N

%

N

%

Cold water

<1.0

1.0−2.5

>2.5

Total

388

19.6

508

280

92

880

25.6

14.1

4.6

44.4

423

220

70

713

21.3

11.1

3.5

36.0

Hot water

<1.0

1.0−2.5

>2.5

Total

1,228

61.8

163

194

37

394

8.2

9.8

1.9

19.8

148

182

35

365

7.4

9.2

1.8

18.4

Bottled water

<1.0

1.0−2.5

>2.5

Total

721

36.5

214

266

69

549

10.8

13.4

3.5

27.8

399

258

50

707

20.2

13.1

2.5

35.8

Total water

<1.0

1.0−2.5

>2.5

Total

76

3.9

449

480

110

1,039

22.8

24.4

5.6

52.8

409

355

89

853

20.8

18.0

5.4

42.4

N = Number of observations.

Source: Forssén et al. (2009).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-122

Table 3-75. Per Capita Estimates of Direct and Indirect Water Intake from All Sources by

Pregnant, Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women (mL/kg-day)

Women Categories

Sample

Size

Mean

90

th

Percentile

95

th

Percentile

Estimate

90% CI

Estimate

90% BI

Estimate

90% BI

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Pregnant

69

21*

19*

22*

39*

33*

46*

44*

38*

46*

Lactating

40

21*

15*

28*

53*

44*

55*

52*

57*

Nonpregnant,

nonlactating ages 15 to

44 years

2,166

19

20

35

36

46

47

* The sample size does not meet minimum reporting requirements to make statistically reliable estimates as described

in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in the United States, 1994−1996 (LSRO, 1995).

NOTE: Source of data: 1994−1996, 1998 USDA CSFII; estimates are based on 2-day averages; interval estimates may

involve aggregation of variance estimation units when data are too sparse to support estimation of the variance; all

estimates exclude commercial and biological water.

90% CI = 90% confidence intervals for estimated means; 90% BI = 90% bootstrap intervals for percentile estimates

using bootstrap method with 1,000 replications.

Source: Kahn and Stralka (2008) (Based on CSFII 1994−1996 and 1998).

Table 3-76. Per Capita Estimates of Direct and Indirect Water Intake from All Sources by

Pregnant, Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women (mL/day)

Women Categories

Sample

Size

Mean

90

th

Percentile

95

th

Percentile

Estimate

90% CI

Estimate

90% BI

Estimate

90% BI

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Pregnant

70

1,318*

1,199*

1,436*

2,336*

1,851*

3,690*

2,674*

2,167*

3,690*

Lactating

41

1,806*

1,374*

2,238*

3,021*

2,722*

3,794*

3,767*

3,452*

3,803*

Nonpregnant,

nonlactating aged 15 to

44

2,221

1,243

1,193

1,292

2,336

2,222

2,488

2,937

2,774

3,211

* The sample size does not meet minimum reporting requirements to make statistically reliable estimates as described

in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in the United States, 1994−1996 (LSRO, 1995).

NOTE: Source of data: 1994−1996, 1998 USDA CSFII; estimates are based on 2-day averages; interval estimates may

involve aggregation of variance estimation units when data are too sparse to support estimation of the variance; all

estimates exclude commercial and biological water.

90% CI = 90% confidence intervals for estimated means; 90% BI = 90% bootstrap intervals for percentile estimates

using bootstrap method with 1,000 replications.

Source: Kahn and Stralka (2008) (Based on CSFII 1994−1996 and 1998).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-123

Table 3-77. Per Capita Estimated Direct and Indirect Community Water Ingestion by

Pregnant, Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women (mL/kg-day)

Women Categories

Sample

Size

Mean

90

th

Percentile

95

th

Percentile

Estimate

90% CI

Estimate

90% BI

Estimate

90% BI

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Pregnant

69

13*

11*

14*

31*

28*

46*

43*

33*

46*

Lactating

40

21*

15*

28*

53*

44*

55*

52*

57*

Nonpregnant,

nonlactating ages 15 to

44 years

2,166

14

15

31

30

32

38

36

39

* The sample size does not meet minimum reporting requirements to make statistically reliable estimates as described

in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in the United States, 1994−1996 (LSRO, 1995).

NOTE: Source of data: 1994−1996, 1998 USDA CSFII; estimates are based on 2-day averages; interval estimates may

involve aggregation of variance estimation units when data are too sparse to support estimation of the variance; all

estimates exclude commercial and biological water.

90% CI = 90% confidence intervals for estimated means; 90% BI = 90% bootstrap intervals for percentile estimates

using bootstrap method with 1,000 replications.

Source: Kahn and Stralka (2008) (Based on CSFII 1994−1996 and 1998).

Table 3-78. Per Capita Estimated Direct and Indirect Community Water Ingestion by

Pregnant, Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women (mL/day)

Women Categories

Sample

Size

Mean

90

th

Percentile

95

th

Percentile

Estimate

90% CI

Estimate

90% BI

Estimate

90% BI

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Pregnant

70

819*

669*

969*

1,815*

1,479*

2,808*

2,503*

2,167*

3,690*

Lactating

41

1,379*

1,021*

1,737*

2,872*

2,722*

3,452*

3,434*

2,987*

3,803*

Nonpregnant,

nonlactating ages 15 to

44 years

2,221

916

882

951

1,953

1,854

2,065

2,575

2,403

2,908

* The sample size does not meet minimum reporting requirements to make statistically reliable estimates as described

in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in the United States, 1994−1996 (LSRO, 1995).

NOTE: Source of data: 1994−1996, 1998 USDA CSFII; estimates are based on 2-day averages; interval estimates may

involve aggregation of variance estimation units when data are too sparse to support estimation of the variance; all

estimates exclude commercial and biological water.

90% CI = 90% confidence intervals for estimated means; 90% BI = 90% bootstrap intervals for percentile estimates

using bootstrap method with 1,000 replications.

Source: Kahn and Stralka (2008) (Based on CSFII 1994−1996 and 1998).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-124

Table 3-79. Consumers-Only Estimated Direct and Indirect Water Intake from All Sources

by Pregnant, Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women (mL/kg-day)

Women Categories

Sample

Size

Mean

90

th

Percentile

95

th

Percentile

Estimate

90% CI

Estimate

90% BI

Estimate

90% BI

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Pregnant

69

21*

19*

22*

39*

33*

46*

44*

38*

46*

Lactating

40

28*

19*

38*

53*

44*

57*

52*

58*

Nonpregnant,

nonlactating ages 15 to

44 years

2,149

19

20

35

34

37

46

42

48

* The sample size does not meet minimum reporting requirements to make statistically reliable estimates as described

in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in the United States, 1994−1996 (LSRO, 1995).

NOTE: Source of data: 1994−1996, 1998 USDA CSFII; estimates are based on 2-day averages; interval estimates may

involve aggregation of variance estimation units when data are too sparse to support estimation of the variance; all

estimates exclude commercial and biological water.

90% CI = 90% confidence intervals for estimated means; 90% BI = 90% bootstrap intervals for percentile estimates

using bootstrap method with 1,000 replications.

Source: Kahn and Stralka (2008) (Based on CSFII 1994−1996 and 1998).

Table 3-80. Consumers-Only Direct and Indirect Water Intake from All Sources by

Pregnant, Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women (mL/day)

Women Categories

Sample

Size

Mean

90

th

Percentile

95

th

Percentile

Estimate

90% CI

Estimate

90% BI

Estimate

90% BI

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Pregnant

70

1,318*

1,199*

1,436*

2,336*

1,851*

3,690*

2,674*

2,167*

3,690*

Lactating

41

1,806*

1,374*

2,238*

3,021*

2,722*

3,794*

3,767*

3,452*

3,803*

Nonpregnant,

nonlactating ages 15 to

44 years

2,203

1,252

1,202

1,303

2,338

2,256

2,404

2,941

2,834

3,179

* The sample size does not meet minimum reporting requirements to make statistically reliable estimates as described

in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in the United States, 1994−1996 (LSRO, 1995).

NOTE: Source of data: 1994−1996, 1998 USDA CSFII; estimates are based on 2-day averages; interval estimates may

involve aggregation of variance estimation units when data are too sparse to support estimation of the variance; all

estimates exclude commercial and biological water.

90% CI = 90% confidence intervals for estimated means; 90% BI = 90% bootstrap intervals for percentile estimates

using bootstrap method with 1,000 replications.

Source: Kahn and Stralka (2008) (Based on CSFII 1994−1996 and 1998).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-125

Table 3-81. Consumers-Only Estimated Direct and Indirect Community Water Ingestion

by Pregnant, Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women (mL/kg-day)

Women Categories

Sample

Size

Mean

90

th

Percentile

95

th

Percentile

Estimate

90% CI

Estimate

90% BI

Estimate

90% BI

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Pregnant

65

14*

12*

15*

33*

29*

46*

43*

33*

46*

Lactating

33

26*

18*

54*

44*

55*

53*

57*

Nonpregnant,

nonlactating ages 15 to

44 years

2,028

15

14

16

32

31

33

38

36

42

* The sample size does not meet minimum reporting requirements to make statistically reliable estimates as described

in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in the United States, 1994−1996 (LSRO, 1995).

NOTE: Source of data: 1994−1996, 1998 USDA CSFII; estimates are based on 2-day averages; interval estimates may

involve aggregation of variance estimation units when data are too sparse to support estimation of the variance; all

estimates exclude commercial and biological water.

90% CI = 90% confidence intervals for estimated means; 90% BI = 90% bootstrap intervals for percentile estimates

using bootstrap method with 1,000 replications.

Source: Kahn and Stralka (2008) (Based on CSFII 1994−1996 and 1998).

Table 3-82. Consumers-Only Estimated Direct and Indirect Community Water Ingestion

by Pregnant, Lactating, and Child-Bearing Age Women (mL/day)

Women Categories

Sample

Size

Mean

90

th

Percentile

95

th

Percentile

Estimate

90% CI

Estimate

90% BI

Estimate

90% BI

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

Pregnant

65

872*

728*

1,016*

1,844*

1,776*

3,690*

2,589*

2,167*

3,690*

Lactating

34

1,665*

1,181*

2,148*

2,959*

2,722*

3,452*

3,588*

2,987*

4,026*

Nonpregnant,

nonlactating ages 15 to

44 years

2,077

976

937

1,014

2,013

1,893

2,065

2,614

2,475

2,873

* The sample size does not meet minimum reporting requirements to make statistically reliable estimates as described

in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in the United States, 1994−1996 (LSRO, 1995).

NOTE: Source of data: 1994−1996, 1998 USDA CSFII; estimates are based on 2-day averages; interval estimates may

involve aggregation of variance estimation units when data are too sparse to support estimation of the variance; all

estimates exclude commercial and biological water.

90% CI = 90% confidence intervals for estimated means; 90% BI = 90% bootstrap intervals for percentile estimates

using bootstrap method with 1,000 replications.

Source: Kahn and Stralka (2008) (Based on CSFII 1994−1996 and 1998).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-126

Table 3-83. Mean and 95

th

Percentile Community Water Intake among Formula-Fed Infants

a

Age Group

Unweighted Sample

Size

b

Weighted Sample Size

b

Indirect in Formula

Total Direct and Indirect

Mean

95

th

Percentile

Mean

95

th

Percentile

mL/day

<1 month

1 to <3 months

3 to <6 months

6 to <12 months

1 to <2 years

36

96

214

324

34

79,000

236,000

525,000

823,000

133,000

491

c

572

645

573

364

856

c

963

c

1,112

c

1,192

c

745

c

505

c

627

699

691

591

c

858

c

1,096

c

1,300

c

1,350

c

1,254

c

mL/kg-day

<1 month

1 to <3 months

3 to <6 months

6 to <12 months

1 to <2 years

34

90

205

311

32

79,000

236,000

525,000

823,000

133,000

143

c

124

93

65

38

c

240

c

285

c

171

c

136

c

82

c

146

c

136

101

78

60

c

240

c

290

c

186

151

c

119

c

a

Formula-consumers only.

b

Samples sizes for estimates in mL/kg-day are smaller than estimates in mL/day because body weight was not reported for some participants. Weighted samples sizes

represent the number in each age group based on the unweighted number in the sample extrapolated to the overall U.S. population.

c

The sample size does not meet the minimum reporting requirements as described in the Third Report on Nutrition Monitoring in the United States (LSRO, 1995).

Source: Kahn et al. (2013).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-127

Table 3-84. Tap Water Intake in Breast-Fed and Formula-Fed Infants and Mixed-Fed Young Children at Different Age Points

Age

N

a

Tap Water Intake

b

(mL/day)

Tap Water Intake

b

(mL/kg-day)

Total

From Household

c

From Manufacturing

d

Mean

SD

Median

p95

Max

Mean

SD

Median

p95

Max

%

e

Mean

SD

%

f

Mean

SD

%

f

Breast-fed

1 year, total

300

130

180

50

525

1,172

17

24**

6

65

150

17

15

23**

85

2.4

4.7**

15

3 months

111

67

167

0

493

746

10

25**

0

74

125

10

25**

97

0.3

1.9**

3

6 months

124

136

150

68

479

634

18

20**

8

58

85

18

14

19**

79

3.8

6.3*

21

9 months

47

254

218

207

656

1,172

30

27**

23

77

150

28

26

27**

87

3.7

3.4

13

12 months

18

144

170

85

649

15

18**

9

66

19

13

18**

86

2.2

2.1

14

Formula-fed

1 year, total

758

441

244

440

828

1,603

53

33

49

115

200

51

49

33

92

4.0

8.0

8

3 months

78

662

154

673

874

994

107

23

107

147

159

93

103

28

97

3.4

17.9

3

6 months

141

500

178

519

757

888

63

23

65

99

109

64

59

25

92

4.8

8.0

8

9 months

242

434

236

406

839

1,579

49

27

45

94

200

50

44

27

91

4.5

6.3

9

12 months

297

360

256

335

789

1,603

37

26

32

83

175

39

33

25

91

3.3

3.7

9

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-128

Table 3-84. Tap Water Intake in Breast-Fed and Formula-Fed Infants and Mixed-Fed Young Children at Different Age Points

(Continued)

Age

N

a

Tap Water Intake

b

(mL/day)

Tap Water Intake

b

(mL/kg-day)

Total

From Household

c

From Manufacturing

d

Mean

SD

Median

p95

Max

Mean

SD

Median

p95

Max

%

e

Mean

SD

%

f

Mean

SD

%

f

Mixed-fed

1 to 3 years, total

904

241

243

175

676

2,441

19

20

14

56

203

24

15

20

78

3.9

5.5

22

18 months

277

280

264

205

828

1,881

25

23

18

70

183

28

22

23

88

3.0

4.1

12

24 months

292

232

263

158

630

2,441

18

21

12

49

203

23

15

21

80

3.7

5.0

20

36 months

335

217

199

164

578

1,544

14

13

11

36

103

22

9

12

66

4.9

6.6

34

a

Numbers of 3-day diet records.

b

Total tap water = tap water from the household and tap water from food manufacturing. Converted from g/day and g/kg-day; 1 g = 1 mL.

c

Tap water from household = tap water from the household tap consumed directly as a beverage or used to prepare foods and beverages.

d

Tap water from food = manufacturing tap water from the industrial food production used for the preparation of foods (bread, butter/margarine, tinned fruit,

vegetables and legumes, ready to serve meals, commercial weaning food) and mixed beverages (lemonade, soft drinks).

e

Mean as a percentage of total water.

f

Mean as a percentage of total tap water.

* Significantly different from formula-fed infants, p < 0.05.

** Significantly different from formula-fed infants, p < 0.0001.

N = Number of observations.

p95 = 95

th

percentile.

SD = Standard deviation.

Source: Hilbig et al. (2002).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-129

Table 3-85. Water Intake for 2-Month-Old Infants (consumers-only)

a

Type of Consumers

N

Mean

Percentiles

10

th

25

th

50

th

75

th

90

th

95

th

mL/day

Total water

393

b

521

57

372

515

713

926

1,036

Tap water only

232

b

564

102

394

552

757

959

1090

Bottled water only

134

b

504

71

382

489

684

838

995

Formula-fed infants who consumed dry formula reconstituted

with either bottled or tap water

278

c

654

419

467

590

779

981

1,105

mL/kg-day

Total water

393

b

98

11

67

97

130

173

194

Tap water only

232

b

105

18

77

103

140

176

201

Bottled water only

134

b

94

14

73

92

122

168

194

Formula-fed infants who consumed dry formula reconstituted

with either bottled or tap water

278

b

122

79

90

112

144

179

200

a

Includes only infants who had some water ingestion.

b

Includes 232 consuming only tap water, 134 consuming only bottled water, and 27 consuming both tap water and bottled water.

c

Of the 393 infants who had some water ingestion, 278 consumed dry formula diluted with either tap water or bottled water; 167 of these infants had their formula

diluted with tap water.

N = Number of observations.

Source: Levallois et al. (2008).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-130

Table 3-86. Water Intake at Various Activity Levels (L/hour)

a

Room Temperature

b

(°F)

Activity Level

High (0.15 hp/man)

c

Medium (0.10 hp/man)

c

Low (0.05 hp/man)

c

100

95

90

85

80

N

d

-

18

7

16

Intake

-

0.540

(0.31)

0.286

(0.26)

0.218

(0.36)

0.222

(0.14)

N

-

12

7

16

-

Intake

-

0.345

(0.59)

0.385

(0.26)

0.213

(0.20)

-

N

15

6

16

-

Intake

0.653

(0.75)

0.50

(0.31)

0.23

(0.20)

-

a

Data expressed as mean intake with standard deviation in parentheses.

b

Humidity = 80%; air velocity = 60 ft/minute.

c

The symbol “hp” refers to horsepower.

d

Number of subjects with continuous data.

- Data not reported in the source document.

Source: McNall and Schlegel (1968).

Table 3-87. Planning Factors for Individual Tap Water Consumption

Environmental Condition

Recommended Planning Factor (gal/day)

a

Recommended Planning Factor

L/day

a,b

Hot

Temperate

Cold

3.0

c

1.5

d

2.0

e

11.4

5.7

7.6

a

Based on a mixture of activities among the workforce as follows: 15% light work; 65% medium work; 20% heavy

work. These factors apply to the conventional battlefield where no nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons are used.

b

Converted from gal/day to L/day.

c

This assumes 1 quart/12-hour rest period/man for perspiration losses and 1 quart/day-man for urination plus

6 quarts/12 hours of light work/man, 9 quarts/12 hours of moderate work/man, and 12 quarts/12 hours of heavy

work/man.

d

This assumes 1 quart/12-hour rest period/man for perspiration losses and 1 quart/day/man for urination plus

1 quart/12 hours of light work/man, 3 quarts/12 hours of moderate work/man, and 6 quarts/12 hours of heavy

work/man.

e

This assumes 1 quart/12-hour rest period/man for perspiration losses, 1 quart/day/man for urination, and

2 quarts/day/man for respiration losses plus 1 quart/12 hours of light work/man, 3 quarts/12 hours of moderate

work/man, and 6 quarts/6 hours of heavy work/man.

Source: U.S. Army (1983, 1999).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-131

Table 3-88. Mean (± standard error [SE]) Fluid Intake (mL/kg-day) by Children Aged 1 to

10 Years, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) III, 1988−1994

Total Sample

N = 7,925

Sample with Temperature Information

N = 3,869

Sample without Temperature

Information

N = 4,056

Total fluid

84 ± 1.0

85 ± 1.4

Plain water

27 ± 0.8

27 ± 1.0

26 ± 1.1

Milk

18 ± 0.3

18 ± 0.6

18 ± 0.4

Carbonated drinks

6 ± 0.2

5 ± 0.3

6 ± 0.3

Juice

12 ± 0.3

11 ± 0.6

12 ± 0.4

N = Number of observations.

Source: Sohn et al. (2001).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-132

Table 3-89. Estimated Mean (± standard error [SE]) Amount of Total Fluid and Plain

Water Intake among Children

a

Aged 1 to 10 Years by Age, Sex, Race/Ethnicity,

Poverty:Income Ratio, Region, and Urbanicity (National Health and Nutrition

Examination Survey [NHANES] III, 1988−1994)

N

Total Fluid

Plain Water

mL/day

mL/kg-day

mL/day

mL/kg-day

Age (years)

1

578

1,393 ± 31

124 ± 2.9

298 ± 19

26 ± 1.8

2

579

1,446 ± 31

107 ± 2.3

430 ± 26

32 ± 1.9

3

502

1,548 ± 75

100 ± 4.6

482 ± 27

31 ± 1.8

4

511

1,601 ± 41

91 ± 2.8

517 ± 23

29 ± 1.3

5

465

1,670 ± 54

84 ± 2.3

525 ± 36

26 ± 1.7

6

255

1,855 ± 125

81 ± 4.9

718 ± 118

31 ± 4.7

7

235

1,808 ± 66

71 ± 2.3

674 ± 46

26 ± 1.9

8

247

1,792 ± 37

61 ± 1.8

626 ± 37

21 ± 1.2

9

254

2,113 ± 78

65 ± 2.1

878 ± 59

26 ± 1.4

10

243

2,051 ± 97

58 ± 2.4

867 ± 74

24 ± 2.0

Sex

Male

1,974

1,802 ± 30

86 ± 1.8

636 ± 32

29 ± 1.3

Female

1,895

1,664 ± 24

81 ± 1.5

579 ± 26

26 ± 1.0

Race/ethnicity

White

736

1,653 ± 26

79 ± 1.8

552 ± 34

24 ± 0.3

Black

1,122

1,859 ± 42

88 ± 1.8

795 ± 36

36 ± 1.5

Mexican American

1,728

1,817 ± 25

89 ± 1.7

633 ± 23

29 ± 1.1

Other

283

1,813 ± 47

90 ± 4.2

565 ± 39

26 ± 1.7

Poverty:income ratio

b

Low

1,868

1,828 ± 32

93 ± 2.6

662 ± 27

32 ± 1.3

Medium

1,204

1,690 ± 31

80 ± 1.6

604 ± 35

26 ± 1.4

High

379

1,668 ± 54

76 ± 2.5

533 ± 41

22 ± 1.7

Region

c,d

Northeast

679

1,735 ± 31

87 ± 2.3

568 ± 52

26 ± 2.1

Midwest

699

1,734 ± 45

84 ± 1.5

640 ± 54

29 ± 1.8

South

869

1,739 ± 31

83 ± 2.2

613 ± 24

28 ± 1.3

West

1,622

737 ± 25

81 ± 1.7

624 ± 44

27 ± 1.9

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-133

Table 3-89. Estimated Mean (± standard error [SE]) Amount of Total Fluid and Plain

Water Intake among Children

a

Aged 1 to 10 Years by Age, Sex, Race/Ethnicity,

Poverty:Income Ratio, Region, and Urbanicity (National Health and Nutrition

Examination Survey [NHANES] III, 1988−1994) (Continued)

N

Total Fluid

Plain Water

mL/day

mL/kg-day

mL/day

mL/kg-day

Urban/rural

d

Urban

3,358

1,736 ± 18

84 ± 1.0

609 ± 29

27 ± 1.1

Rural

511

1,737 ± 19

84 ± 4.3

608 ± 20

28 ± 1.2

Total

3,869

1,737 ± 15

84 ± 1.1

609 ± 24

27 ± 1.0

a

Children for whom temperature data were obtained.

b

Based on ratio of household income to federal poverty threshold. Low: <1.300; medium: 1.301−3.500; high: >3.501.

c

All variables except for region and urban/rural showed statistically significant differences for both total fluid and

plain water intake by Bonferroni multiple comparison method.

d

Northeast = Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode

Island, Vermont;

Midwest = Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South

Dakota, Wisconsin;

South = Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland,

Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, West Virginia;

West = Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah,

Washington, Wyoming.

N = Number of observations.

Source: Sohn et al. (2001).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-134

Table 3-90. Daily Water Intake Based on Physical Activity Levels, Mean ± Standard Error

(SE) g/day

Physical Activity Level

Plain Water

a

Beverage Moisture

b

Food Moisture

c

Total Water

d

Age 2−19 years (N = 3,978)

e

All

None

A little

Some

A lot

583 ± 28

379 ± 13

516 ± 79

515 ± 39

643 ± 31

47 ± 1

1,173 ± 194

842 ± 57

881 ± 32

917 ± 44

437 ± 7

417 ± 35

423 ± 27

412 ± 18

442 ± 10

1,926 ± 36

1,969 ± 244

1780 ± 108

1,808 ± 67

2,003 ± 49

Age 20+ years (N = 4,112)

f

All

Any leisure activity ≥10 minutes over

previous month?

Yes

No

Average activity on usual day?

Mostly sitting

Mostly standing

Carry light loads or climb stairs

Heavy work or carry heavy loads

1,061 ± 52

1,112 ± 50

933 ± 64

998 ± 64

1,060 ± 61

1,100 ± 93

1,142 ± 110

1,539 ± 43

1,543 ± 44

1,528 ± 53

1,487 ± 65

1,471 ± 37

1,680 ± 87

1,733 ± 55

580 ± 12

587 ± 13

561 ± 16

584 ± 17

579 ± 8

577 ± 19

582 ± 29

3,179 ± 68

3,242 ± 72

3,021 ± 69

3,068 ± 58

3,110 ± 74

3,357 ± 109

3,457 ± 123

Age 20+ (N = 2,691)

g

All

MET score = 0

MET score = Tertile 1

MET score = Tertile 2

MET score = Tertile 3

985 ± 39

973 ± 74

971 ± 38

1,004 ± 81

1,047 ± 81

1,418 ± 34

1,295 ± 38

1,325 ± 38

1,617 ± 69

1,806 ± 58

664 ± 14

653 ± 19

653 ± 13

680 ± 29

716 ± 25

3,066 ± 47

2,920 ± 67

2,949 ± 54

3,302 ± 56

3,568 ± 119

a

Includes tap water, water from a cooler or drinking fountain, spring water, and noncarbonated bottled water.

b

Includes moisture in beverages.

c

Includes moisture in foods.

d

Sum of plain water, beverage moisture, and food moisture.

e

Kant and Graubard (2010); based on NHANES 2005−2006.

f

Kant et al. (2009); based on NHANES 1999−2006.

g

Yang and Chun (2014); based on NHANES 2005−2006.

N = Number of individuals.

Source: Kant et al. (2009); Kant and Graubard (2010); Yang and Chun (2014).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-135

Table 3-91. Pool Water Ingestion by Swimmers

Study Group

Number of

Participants

Average Water Ingestion Rate

mL/45-minute interval

Average Water Ingestion Rate

mL/hour

a

Children <18 years old

Males <18 years old

Females <18 years old

41

20

21

37

45

30

49

60

43

Adults (>18 years)

Men

Women

12

4

8

16

22

12

21

29

16

a

Converted from mL/45-minute interval.

Source: Dufour et al. (2006).

Table 3-92. Swimming Pool Water Ingestion Rates (mL/hour) by Swimmer Groups

Age Group

Sex

N

Geometric Mean

Confidence Intervals

95

th

Percentile

Children 6−10 years

All

66

24

17−33

96

Teens 11−15 years

All

121

24

19−30

152

Adults 16+ years

All

362

12

11−14

105

Female

192

9

8−11

72

Male

170

16

13−20

145

N = Number of study participants.

Source: Dufour et al. (2017); Dufour and Wymer (2017).

Table 3-93. Water Ingested while Swimming (mL/hour)

Age (years)

N

Mean

Percentiles

25

th

50

th

75

th

90

th

95

th

6 to <11

66

38

15

25

53

77

96

11 to <16

121

44

11

29

48

103

152

16 to <21

84

33

9

19

41

74

105

6 to <21

271

39

11

25

47

87

137

21+

276

28

5

13

29

50

92

N = Number of study participants.

Source: Dufour (2017); based on data provided to L. Phillips by A. Dufour by personal communication, 6/21/2017.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-136

Table 3-94. Arithmetic Mean (maximum) Number of Dives per Diver and Volume of Water

Ingested (mL/dive)

Divers and Locations

Percentage of Divers

Number of Dives

Volume of Water Ingested

mL

Occupational divers (N = 35)

Open sea

Coastal water, USD <1 km

Coastal water, USD >1 km

Coastal water, USD unknown

Open sea and coastal combined

Fresh water, USD <1 km

Fresh water, USD >1 km

Fresh water, no USD

Fresh water, USD unknown

All fresh water combined

57

23

20

51

-

37

77

-

24 (151)

3.2 (36)

1.8 (16)

16 (200)

-

8.3 (76)

16 (200)

45 (200)

-

8.7 (25)

9.7 (25)

8.3 (25)

12 (100)

9.8 (100)

5.5 (25)

4.8 (25)

6.0 (25)

5.7 (25)

Sports divers―ordinary mask (N = 482)

Open sea

Coastal water

Open sea and coastal combined

Fresh recreational water

Canals and rivers

City canals

Canals, rivers, city canals combined

Swimming pools

26

78

-

85

11

1.5

-

65

2.1 (120)

14 (114)

-

22 (159)

0.65 (62)

0.031 (4)

-

17 (134)

7.7 (100)

9.9 (190)

9.0 (190)

13 (190)

3.4 (100)

2.8 (100)

3.2 (100)

20 (190)

Sports divers—full face mask (N = 482)

Open sea

Coastal water

Fresh recreational water

Canals and rivers

City canals

All surface water combined

Swimming pools

0.21

1.0

27

1.2

0.41

-

2.3

0.012 (6)

0.10 (34)

0.44 (80)

0.098 (13)

0.010 (3)

-

0.21 (40)

0.43 (2.8)

1.3 (15)

0.47 (2.8)

0.31 (2.8)

0.81 (25)

13 (190)

N = Number of divers.

USD = Upstream sewage discharge.

Source: Schijven and de Roda Husman (2006).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-137

Table 3-95. Exposure Parameters for Swimmers in Swimming Pools, Fresh Water, and

Seawater

Parameter

Adults

Children <15 years

Men

Women

Mean

95% UCI

Mean

95% UCI

Mean

95% UCI

Swimming duration (min)

Swimming pool

Fresh water

Seawater

68

54

45

180

200

160

67

54

41

170

220

180

81

79

65

200

270

240

Volume water swallowed (mL)

Swimming pool

Fresh water

Seawater

34

27

170

140

23

18

110

86

90

51

37

31

200

170

140

UCI = Upper confidence interval.

Source: Schets et al. (2011).

Table 3-96. Estimated Water Ingestion during Water Recreation Activities (mL/hr)

Activity

N

Surface Water Study

N

Swimming Pool Study

Median

Mean

UCL

Median

Mean

UCL

Limited Contact Scenarios

Boating

Canoeing

No capsize

With capsize

All activities

Fishing

Kayaking

No capsize

With capsize

All activities

Rowing

No capsize

With capsize

All activities

Wading/splashing

Walking

316

766

600

801

222

0

2.1

2.2

3.6

2.3

2.0

2.2

2.9

2.3

2.0

2.3

-

3.7

3.8

6.0

3.9

3.6

3.8

5.0

3.8

3.9

3.5

3.9

-

11.2

11.4

19.9

11.8

10.8

11.4

16.5

11.6

11.8

10.6

11.8

-

0

76

121

104

0

112

23

-

2.1

3.9

2.6

2.0

2.1

4.8

3.1

-

2.2

2.0

-

3.6

6.6

4.4

3.5

3.6

7.9

5.2

-

3.7

3.5

-

11.0

22.4

14.1

10.6

10.9

26.8

17.0

-

11.2

10.6

Full Contact Scenarios

Immersion

Swimming

0

-

112

114

3.2

6.0

5.1

10.0

15.3

34.8

TOTAL

2,705

662

N = Number of participants.

UCL = Upper confidence limit (i.e., mean + 1.96 × SD).

- = No data.

Source: Dorevitch et al. (2011).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page 3-138

Table 3-97. Pool Water Ingestion (mL/hr) by Activity and Age Group among Videotaped

Participants

Groups

N

Mean

SD

Range

All swimmers

Adults

Children

Lap swimmers

Leisure swimmers

35

19

16

9

26

13.7

3.5

25.7

1.6

17.8

24.0

11.7

29.2

3.1

26.6

0−105.5

0−50.9

0.9−105.5

0.9−19

0−105.5

N = Number of participants.

Source: Suppes et al. (2014).

Table 3-98. Estimated Volume of Water Ingested per Swimming Event (mL/event)

Age (years)

Mean

SD

Percentiles

5

th

10

th

50

th

90

th

95

th

All water types

All ages

6−12

13−18

19−34

≥35

44.4

63.2

63.7

29.0

29.9

93.1

83.4

69.4

82.6

1.0

2.8

1.6

0.7

2.0

5.5

3.1

1.3

1.1

16.0

36.0

27.0

9.7

9.0

104.7

150.0

156.0

66.0

64.0

174.0

213.0

254.0

116.0

118.0

Fresh water

All ages

6−12

13−18

19−34

≥35

35.4

53.0

45.0

21.9

22.6

74.6

69.9

79.9

54.4

62.1

0.8

2.4

1.0

0.4

1.3

5.0

2.0

0.9

12.7

30.0

18.0

7.1

6.7

84.0

126.2

112.0

50.0

47.6

140.0

184.0

174.7

85.3

88.0

Marine

All ages

6−12

13−18

19−34

≥35

48.3

67.7

71.4

32.8

32.3

99.3

88.5

115.5

76.3

88.1

1.2

3.0

2.0

0.7

2.0

6.0

4.0

1.3

18.0

39.3

32.0

11.1

9.8

116.0

160.0

174.7

76.0

70.5

186.7

220.0

280.0

126.0

121.3

Source: De-Florio-Barker et al. (2017).

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page A-1

APPENDIX A

Table A-1. Comparison of Community Water Intake Estimates

a

1994−1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CFSII), National Health and

Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003−2006, and NHANES 2005−2010

Age Range

CSFII 1994−1998

b

NHANES 2003−2006

c

NHANES 2005−2010

d

N

Mean

95

th

N

Mean

95

th

N

Mean

95

th

Per Capita (mL/day)

Birth <1 month

1 <3 months

3 <6 months

6 <12 months

1 <2 years

2 <3 years

3 <6 years

6 <11 years

11 <16 years

16 <21 years

>21 years

All

91

253

428

714

1,040

1,056

4,391

1,670

1,005

752

9,207

20,607

184

227

362

360

271

317

380

447

606

779

1,104

926

839

896

1,056

1,055

837

877

1,078

1,235

1,727

2,262

2,811

2,544

88

143

244

466

611

571

1,091

1,601

2,396

2,332

8,673

18,216

239

282

373

303

223

265

327

414

520

627

1,043

869

851

962

925

866

760

861

959

1,316

1,821

2,076

2,958

2,717

87

233

282

588

728

751

1,418

2,292

2,551

2,191

13,552

24,673

184

145

187

269

146

205

208

294

315

436

859

711

951

905

981

988

565

778

741

1,071

1,395

1,900

2,732

2,641

Per Capita (mL/kg-day)

Birth <1 month

1 <3 months

3 <6 months

6 <12 months

1 <2 years

2 <3 years

3 <6 years

6 <11 years

11 <16 years

16 <21 years

>21 years

All

88

245

411

678

1,002

994

4,112

1,553

975

743

9,049

19,850

52

48

52

41

23

22

16

12

15

16

232

205

159

126

71

60

61

43

34

33

39

43

88

143

244

466

611

571

1,091

1,601

2,396

2,332

8,673

18,216

52

49

52

34

20

19

18

14

10

9

13

14

169

164

132

103

67

61

51

43

32

40

42

87

233

282

588

728

751

1,418

2,292

2,551

2,191

13,552

24,673

42

25

27

30

13

15

11

10

6

11

200

164

141

112

51

58

42

34

26

28

35

37

Consumer Only (mL/day)

Birth <1 month

1 <3 months

3 <6 months

6 <12 months

1 <2 years

2 <3 years

3 <6 years

6 <11 years

11 <16 years

16 <21 years

>21 years

All

40

114

281

562

916

934

3,960

1,555

937

705

8,505

18,509

470

552

556

467

308

356

417

480

652

844

1,183

1,000

858

1,053

1,171

1,147

893

912

1,099

1,251

1,744

2,284

2,848

2,601

51

85

192

416

534

508

985

1,410

2,113

2,030

7,616

15,940

409

531

520

356

277

321

382

511

637

759

1,227

1,033

852

1,019

929

948

781

911

999

1,404

1,976

2,351

3,092

2,881

20

45

65

244

394

445

860

1,473

1,449

1,312

8,912

15,219

581

785

649

554

245

332

338

455

562

722

1,276

1,096

938

1,223

1,125

1,104

658

901

836

1,258

1,761

2,214

3,075

2,972

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page A-2

Table A-1. Comparison of Community Water Intake Estimates

a

1994−1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CFSII), National Health and

Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003−2006, and NHANES 2005−2010

(Continued)

Age Range

CSFII 1994−1998

b

NHANES 2003−2006

c

NHANES 2005−2010

d

N

Mean

95

th

N

Mean

95

th

N

Mean

95

th

Consumer Only (mL/kg-day)

Birth <1 month

1 <3 months

3 <6 months

6 <12 months

1 <2 years

2 <3 years

3 <6 years

6 <11 years

11 <16 years

16 <21 years

>21 years

All

37

108

269

534

880

879

3,703

1,439

911

700

8,355

17,815

137

119

80

53

27

26

24

17

13

16

17

238

285

173

129

75

62

65

45

34

39

44

51

85

192

416

534

508

985

1,410

2,113

2,030

7,616

15,940

90

93

73

40

25

23

21

17

12

11

16

172

186

140

104

71

62

52

47

35

33

36

44

20

45

65

244

394

445

860

1,473

1,449

1,312

8,912

15,219

133

136

93

62

22

24

19

15

10

17

224

267

158

133

57

67

45

41

31

41

44

a

CSFII analysis assumes that some indirect water intake is from bottled water; NHANES analysis assumes that all

indirect water intake is from community water.

b

Used as the basis of recommended values for children <3 years of age in the Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011

Edition (U.S. EPA, 2011).

c

Used as the basis of recommended values for ages ≥3 years in the Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition (U.S.

EPA, 2011).

d

Based on the new JIFSAN Food Intake Calculator.

CSFII = Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals.

N = Number of observations.

NHANES = National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.

Bold italics text indicates less reliable estimates.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page A-3

Table A-2. Comparison of Bottled Water Intake Estimates

a

1994−1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CFSII), National Health and

Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003−2006, and NHANES 2005−2010

Age Range

CSFII 1994−1998

NHANES 2003−2006

NHANES 2005−2010

N

Mean

95

th

N

Mean

95

th

N

Mean

95

th

Per Capita (mL/day)

Birth <1 month

1 <3 months

3 <6 months

6 <12 months

1 <2 years

2 <3 years

3 <6 years

6 <11 years

11 <16 years

16 <21 years

>21 years

All

91

253

428

714

1,040

1,056

4,391

1,670

1,005

752

9,207

20,607

104

106

120

59

76

84

111

147

189

163

556

771

774

761

350

494

531

532

709

911

1,183

1,059

88

143

244

466

611

571

1,091

1,601

2,396

2,332

8,673

18,216

6

21

12

34

65

95

108

138

202

365

375

321

28

122

77

187

342

575

526

696

938

1,621

1,718

1,502

87

233

282

588

728

751

1,418

2,292

2,551

2,191

13,552

24,673

7

8

11

34

71

105

121

156

235

380

335

326

44

89

178

356

533

578

731

1,095

1,500

1,542

1,570

Per Capita (mL/kg-day)

Birth <1 month

1 <3 months

3 <6 months

6 <12 months

1 <2 years

2 <3 years

3 <6 years

6 <11 years

11 <16 years

16 <21 years

>21 years

All

88

245

411

678

1,002

994

4,112

1,553

975

743

9,049

19,850

33

22

16

13

5

3

2

3

243

161

117

87

28

35

30

18

14

15

17

18

88

143

244

466

611

571

1,091

1,601

2,396

2,332

8,673

18,216

1

4

2

4

6

7

6

4

5

7

19

11

22

30

40

31

24

17

24

22

87

233

282

588

728

751

1,418

2,292

2,551

2,191

13,552

24,673

2

1

2

4

6

8

7

5

4

6

4

5

11

8

12

21

32

39

32

23

19

24

19

22

Consumer Only (mL/day)

Birth <1 month

1 <3 months

3 <6 months

6 <12 months

1 <2 years

2 <3 years

3 <6 years

6 <11 years

11 <16 years

16 <21 years

>21 years

All

25

64

103

200

229

232

1,021

332

192

160

1,893

4,451

-

450

507

425

262

352

380

430

570

692

831

736

-

1,045

1,436

1,103

709

977

958

1,081

1,447

1,978

1,773

1,567

11

28

65

190

247

220

430

661

1,171

1,211

3,836

8,070

55

135

69

111

193

276

297

350

477

755

840

738

190

347

202

359

474

1,000

825

898

1,297

2,223

2,363

2,133

16

38

79

228

317

332

617

1,036

1,236

1,111

6,299

736

38

66

61

109

188

273

299

374

517

753

771

736

155

192

133

281

578

711

830

1,067

1,600

1,995

2,160

2,133

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page A-4

Table A-2. Comparison of Bottled Water Intake Estimates

a

1994−1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CFSII), National Health and

Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003−2006, and NHANES 2005−2010

(Continued)

Age Range

CSFII 1994−1998

NHANES 2003−2006

NHANES 2005−2010

N

Mean

95

th

N

Mean

95

th

N

Mean

95

th

Consumer Only (mL/kg-day)

Birth <1 month

1 <3 months

3 <6 months

6 <12 months

1 <2 years

2 <3 years

3 <6 years

6 <11 years

11 <16 years

16 <21 years

>21 years

All

25

64

95

185

216

211

946

295

180

156

1,861

4,234

-

92

72

47

22

25

21

15

11

12

13

-

220

184

120

66

81

57

42

27

29

30

36

11

28

65

190

247

220

430

661

1,171

1,211

3,836

8,070

12

24

10

12

17

20

16

11

9

11

38

63

27

36

44

68

47

31

23

34

29

31

16

38

79

228

317

332

617

1,036

1,236

1,111

6,299

11,309

8

11

8

12

17

20

17

12

9

11

10

11

31

19

32

48

52

44

34

25

30

28

30

a

CSFII analysis includes direct and indirect bottled water intake. NHANES analyses include direct water intake only.

CSFII = Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals.

N = Number of observations.

NHANES = National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.

Bold italics text indicates less reliable estimates.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page A-5

Table A-3. Comparison of Other Sources of Water Intake Estimates

a

1994−1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CFSII), National Health and

Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003−2006, and NHANES 2005−2010

Age Range

CSFII 1994−1998

NHANES 2003−2006

NHANES 2005−2010

N

Mean

95

th

N

Mean

95

th

N

Mean

95

th

Per Capita (mL/day)

Birth <1 month

1 <3 months

3 <6 months

6 <12 months

1 <2 years

2 <3 years

3 <6 years

6 <11 years

11 <16 years

16 <21 years

>21 years

All

91

253

428

714

1,040

1,056

4,391

1,670

1,005

752

9,207

20,607

13

35

45

22

39

43

61

102

72

156

128

-

367

365

406

118

344

343

468

786

493

1,257

1,008

88

143

244

466

611

571

1,091

1,601

2,396

2,332

8,673

18,216

51

82

141

124

82

74

62

108

163

184

282

237

229

276

329

770

479

459

433

659

1,030

1,193

1,831

1,480

87

233

282

588

728

751

1,418

2,292

2,551

2,191

13,552

24,673

273

351

355

274

77

93

84

105

198

217

315

272

860

1,055

1,154

1,023

356

524

481

614

1,078

1,221

1,726

1,571

Per Capita (mL/kg-day)

Birth <1 month

1 <3 months

3 <6 months

6 <12 months

1 <2 years

2 <3 years

3 <6 years

6 <11 years

11 <16 years

16 <21 years

>21 years

All

88

245

411

678

1,002

994

4,112

1,553

975

743

9,049

19,850

4

7

5

2

3

2

-

52

55

35

11

23

19

16

14

8

17

16

88

143

244

466

611

571

1,091

1,601

2,396

2,332

8,673

18,216

11

14

20

14

7

6

3

4

3

4

45

49

60

74

43

34

22

23

16

17

23

87

233

282

588

728

751

1,418

2,292

2,551

2,191

13,552

24,673

66

63

49

31

7

4

3

4

5

206

195

157

119

31

40

24

21

19

18

23

25

Consumer Only (mL/day)

Birth <1 month

1 <3 months

3 <6 months

6 <12 months

1 <2 years

2 <3 years

3 <6 years

6 <11 years

11 <16 years

16 <21 years

>21 years

All

3

19

38

73

98

129

533

219

151

86

1,386

2,735

-

562

407

262

354

396

448

687

613

1,137

963

-

1,205

1,032

899

851

1,019

1,090

1,839

1,923

2,739

2,468

41

67

160

287

312

256

449

609

1,116

1,039

3,555

7,891

121

187

237

223

155

163

155

270

367

437

672

559

246

400

730

877

628

798

631

1,065

1,467

2,145

2,774

2,381

47

134

175

328

310

282

525

755

994

760

4,412

8,722

611

704

665

564

209

268

231

331

513

632

1,002

833

923

1,122

1,250

1,182

642

887

721

948

1,526

2,297

2,798

2,682

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page A-6

Table A-3. Comparison of Other Sources of Water Intake Estimates

a

1994−1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CFSII), National Health and

Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003−2006, and NHANES 2005−2010

(Continued)

Age Range

CSFII 1994−1998

NHANES 2003−2006

NHANES 2005−2010

N

Mean

95

th

N

Mean

95

th

N

Mean

95

th

Consumer Only (mL/kg-day)

Birth <1 month

1 <3 months

3 <6 months

6 <12 months

1 <2 years

2 <3 years

3 <6 years

6 <11 years

11 <16 years

16 <21 years

>21 years

All

3

19

38

68

95

124

505

208

148

85

1,365

2,657

-

80

44

23

26

22

16

13

9

15

16

-

200

106

84

66

56

39

36

28

39

41

67

160

287

312

256

449

609

1,116

1,039

3,555

7,891

26

31

33

25

14

12

8

9

6

9

51

69

113

98

54

62

28

33

23

28

35

47

134

175

328

310

282

525

755

994

760

4,412

8,722

148

126

92

64

19

20

12

11

9

13

14

297

218

176

141

58

64

34

36

27

30

36

43

a

Includes both direct and indirect water intake.

CSFII = Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals.

N = Number of observations.

NHANES = National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.

Bold italics text indicates less reliable estimates.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page A-7

Table A-4. Comparison of All Sources of Water Intake Estimates

a

1994−1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CFSII), National Health and

Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003−2006, and NHANES 2005−2010

Age Range

CSFII 1994−1998

NHANES 2003−2006

NHANES 2005−2010

N

Mean

95

th

N

Mean

95

th

N

Mean

95

th

Per Capita (mL/day)

Birth <1 month

1 <3 months

3 <6 months

6 <12 months

1 <2 years

2 <3 years

3 <6 years

6 <11 years

11 <16 years

16 <21 years

>21 years

All

91

253

428

714

1,040

1,056

4,391

1,670

1,005

752

9,207

20,607

301

368

528

530

358

437

514

600

834

1,020

1,466

1,233

877

1,020

1,303

1,278

961

999

1,200

1,409

1,960

2,665

3,195

2,908

88

143

244

466

611

571

1,091

1,601

2,396

2,332

8,673

18,216

295

385

527

461

370

435

498

660

885

1,177

1,700

1,426

954

1,084

1,192

1,126

912

1,086

1,181

1,567

2,595

2,999

3,727

3,412

87

233

282

588

728

751

1,418

2,292

2,551

2,191

13,552

24,673

464

505

552

576

293

403

413

555

748

1,033

1,500

1,309

945

1,124

1,207

1,168

768

1,001

980

1,389

2,242

2,741

3,350

3,292

Per Capita (mL/kg-day)

Birth <1 month

1 <3 months

3 <6 months

6 <12 months

1 <2 years

2 <3 years

3 <6 years

6 <11 years

11 <16 years

16 <21 years

>21 years

All

88

245

411

678

1,002

994

4,112

1,553

975

743

9,049

19,850

89

77

75

59

31

29

21

16

20

21

269

246

186

148

85

73

69

50

39

44

50

88

143

244

466

611

571

1,091

1,601

2,396

2,332

8,673

18,216

65

67

74

52

33

32

27

22

16

17

22

195

194

179

137

80

78

63

52

44

50

53

87

233

282

588

728

751

1,418

2,292

2,551

2,191

13,552

24,673

110

89

77

65

26

29

23

18

13

15

19

20

253

204

165

138

69

71

54

47

38

41

44

49

Consumer Only mL/day

Birth <1 month

1 <3 months

3 <6 months

6 <12 months

1 <2 years

2 <3 years

3 <6 years

6 <11 years

11 <16 years

16 <21 years

>21 years

All

58

178

363

667

1,017

1,051

4,350

1,659

1,000

740

9,178

20,261

511

555

629

567

366

439

518

603

837

1,039

1,472

1,242

986

1,072

1,330

1,303

978

1,001

1,206

1,409

1,961

2,674

3,195

2,923

54

92

209

453

596

560

1,077

1,580

2,362

2,269

8,608

17,860

481

665

660

477

378

441

506

666

898

1,208

1,712

1,444

996

1,099

1,215

1,128

914

1,087

1,182

1,585

2,600

3,015

3,733

3,422

68

182

243

577

714

741

1,405

2,263

2,504

2,129

13,473

24,299

597

725

666

590

300

408

416

565

767

1,068

1,508

1,325

953

1,154

1,251

1,182

768

1,001

993

1,389

2,248

2,808

3,354

3,306

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page A-8

Table A-4. Comparison of All Sources of Water Intake Estimates

a

1994−1998 Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CFSII), National Health and

Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003−2006, and NHANES 2005−2010

(Continued)

Age Range

CSFII 1994−1998

NHANES 2003−2006

NHANES 2005−2010

N

Mean

95

th

N

Mean

95

th

N

Mean

95

th

Consumer Only (mL/kg-day)

Birth <1 month

1 <3 months

3 <6 months

6 <12 months

1 <2 years

2 <3 years

3 <6 years

6 <11 years

11 <16 years

16 <21 years

>21 years

All

55

172

346

631

980

989

4,072

1,542

970

732

9,020

19,509

153

116

90

63

31

29

21

16

20

21

273

291

195

152

86

73

70

50

39

44

50

54

92

209

453

596

560

1,077

1,580

2,362

2,269

8,608

17,860

105

115

92

54

34

32

27

22

16

18

22

211

201

186

137

82

78

63

52

44

45

50

53

68

182

243

577

714

741

1,405

2,263

2,504

2,129

13,473

24,299

141

128

93

66

27

29

23

19

14

15

19

20

263

218

174

139

69

72

54

48

38

41

44

50

a

CSFII analysis includes direct and indirect bottled water. NHANES analysis assumes that all indirect water intake is

from community water.

CSFII = Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals.

N = Number of observations.

NHANES = National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.

Bold italics text indicates less reliable estimates.

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page A-9

F

igure A-1. Comparison of mean per capita water ingestion (mL/day), all ages: Continuing Survey of Food

Intake by Individuals (CSFII) 1994−1996, 1998; National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

(NHANES) 2003−2006, and NHANES 2005−2010.

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

CSFII 1994-98 NHANES 2003-06 NHANES 2005-10

Mean Per Capita Water Ingestion (mL/day)

Whole Population (all ages)

Community Bottled Other All

Update for Chapter 3 of the Exposure Factors Handbook

Chapter 3―Ingestion of Water and Other Select Liquids

February 2019

Page B-1

APPENDIX B

Table B-1. Terms Used in Literature Searches

Water ingestion

Water intake

Water consumption

Direct water ingestion/intake/consumption

Indirect water ingestion/intake/consumption

Bottled water ingestion/intake/consumption

Well water ingestion/intake/consumption

Spring water ingestion/intake/consumption

Tap water ingestion/intake/consumption

Incidental water ingestion/intake/consumption

Community water ingestion/intake/consumption

Municipal water ingestion/intake/consumption

Commercial water ingestion/intake/consumption

Drinking water source

Intrinsic water ingestion/intake/consumption

Surface water ingestion/intake/consumption

Consumer only water ingestion/intake/consumption

Per capita water ingestion/intake/consumption

Liquid ingestion/intake/consumption

Chlorinated/nonchlorinated ingestion/intake/consumption

Water…and activity level

Water…and bathers

Water…and climate

Water…and health status

Water…and pregnancy

Water…and lactation

Water…and diabetes

Water…and smoking

Water…and swimming/diving

Water…and recreational activities

Fluid intake

Beverage intake

Ershow AG

Marshall T