1
Virginia Is for Teachers?
An Analysis of the State’s
Teacher Demand and Supply
November 19, 2018
Lucy Sorensen
Jamie Frank
Thomas Gais
Hao Sun
2
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Lucy Sorensen is a faculty fellow at the
Rockefeller Institute of Government
Jamie Frank is a visiting fellow at the
Rockefeller Institute of Government
Thomas Gais is a senior fellow at the
Rockefeller Institute of Government
Hao Sun is a student research assistant at the
Rockefeller Institute of Government
3
Introduction
States and school districts across the United States have reported grappling with
teacher shortages.
1
Teacher preparation program enrollments and graduates have
dropped at the national level, while the number of public school students has steadily
risen.
2
Teacher labor markets, however, differ greatly from state to state as well
as between communities.
3
Even within localities, certain subject areas or types of
schools face starker challenges in training, hiring, and retaining teachers.
4
For these reasons, the Rockefeller Institute of Government,
the public policy research think tank for the State University
of New York, is examining trends and patterns in teacher
supply and demand in a series of state reports to inform
state as well as national policies aimed at ensuring an
adequate supply of qualified teachers for all communities
and Pre-K-12 students. This report, which focuses on
Virginia, is the third in the series; the first two examined
teacher labor markets in New York and South Dakota.
5
Virginia’s teacher workforce faces real challenges.
Prekindergarten through twelfth grade student enrollment
has increased at twice the national rate of enrollment
growth since 2000. The proportion of students requiring
supplemental services and instruction, especially
economically disadvantaged students and English language
learners, has grown even faster. Also, different regions
of the state have experienced very different changes in
enrollment, a dynamic that could require large and rapid
shifts in the geographical distribution of teachers.
Running counter to the
national trend, in which
the number of graduates
from teacher education
programs in the US fell
by 28 percent between
2009 and 2016, the
number of graduates from
the Commonwealth’s
teacher preparation
programs increased by
11.0 percent over the same
seven years.
4
At the same time, Virginia’s teacher pipeline has grown. Running counter to the
national trend, in which the number of graduates from teacher education programs
in the US fell by 28 percent between 2009 and 2016, the number of graduates from
the Commonwealth’s teacher preparation programs increased by 11.0 percent over
the same seven years. Student-to-teacher ratios actually declined in recent years,
from nearly 12.6 students per teacher in 2002 to about 12.0 in 2016.
6
This decline
reflects the fact that growth in the number of teachers statewide outpaced the growth
in Virginia students since 2002.
However, despite the increase in teacher candidates,
the state has reported a high proportion of vacancies in
teacher positions; and although the number of students
with special education needs has not grown appreciably
in recent years, Virginia has repeatedly reported to the
federal government that its schools are experiencing
shortages in teachers with appropriate preparation in
special education.
In addition, Virginia exhibits large differences within the state regarding access to
well-qualified teachers. Teacher vacancies, turnover in teaching positions, and teacher
qualifications vary substantially across regions and school districts (called “divisions”
in the state) within Virginia, resulting in pockets of shortage, particularly in regions
of the state with higher rates of poverty. As we found in our prior analyses of New
York and South Dakota, the local-level distribution of qualified teachers appears to
be a less tractable problem than the overall, statewide balance between teachers and
enrollments.
To address these issues, the Virginia Department of Education has implemented
several policies to encourage more people to pursue teaching careers, to ease the
transition to certification for in-state and out-of-state educators, and to reward those
who are willing to teach in subjects with serious shortages.
Demand
The demand for K-12 teachers is comparatively strong in Virginia, especially for
teachers prepared for and willing to teach high school, English Language Learners
(ELLs), and economically disadvantaged students (EDSs). Four factors may affect the
demand for K-12 teachers in Virginia:
1. Student enrollment;
2. High-need student subgroup populations;
3. Age distribution of teachers; and
4. Teacher turnover and attrition.
Analyses of these factors suggest that the demand for public school teachers in
Virginia will continue to grow in coming years.
However, despite the
increase in teacher
candidates, the state has
reported a high proportion
of vacancies in teacher
positions.
5
Student Enrollment
The number of K-12 students in Virginia’s schools has increased steadily over the
past two decades, and at a rate greater than that for the entire US. Between 2000 to
2015, Virginia’s total public elementary and secondary school enrollment grew by 12.1
percent, compared to 6.9 percent growth nationwide, with forecasted regular growth
projected through 2027.
7
Virginia’s expansion in student enrollment was most striking in its high schools. As
Figure 1A shows, enrollment in grades 9 through 12 increased by 20 percent between
2000 and 2018 (estimated), much greater than the nationwide growth rate of 12
percent. Virginia’s enrollment also increased faster than the nation’s for younger
students — from prekindergarten through eighth grade — but the growth rates were
substantially lower. The Commonwealth’s increase in pre-K through eighth grade
enrollment was about 11 percent between 2000 and 2018 (again, estimated), while for
the US the increase was slightly over 5 percent (Figure 1B). The strong growth in high
school enrollment may reflect not only population changes but also improvements in
Virginia’s high school retention and completion rates. The four-year cohort graduation
rate in the state grew from 82.1 percent in 2008 to 91.2 percent in 2017.
8
The state’s public elementary and secondary school enrollment is expected to continue
to increase, though at a slower rate. The National Center for Education Statistics
projects that enrollment in Virginia will grow 3.3 percent between the fall of 2016 and
the fall of 2027, similar to the US growth rate of 3.2 percent over the same period.
9
FIGURE 1A. Public School Student Enrollment Trends Grades Nine through Twelve:
Percent Compared to Enrollment in 2000
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
United States
Virginia
6
DATA SOURCE: Digest of Education Statistics, National Center for Education Statistics, 2016.
NOTE. Enrollment values imputed for 2001-03, forecasted for 2015-18; enrollment numbers scaled as comparisons to
baseline state/national enrollment in 2000.
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
United States
Virginia
FIGURE 1B. Public School Student Enrollment Trends Pre-K through Eighth Grade:
Percent Compared to Enrollment in 2000
Falls Church and Arlington Counties
GREW BY OVER
15 percent
between 2010 and 2017
Loudoun County
INCREASED BY
26.8 percent
Central
Eastern
Ham
p
ton Roads
Northern
Southside
Southwest
Valle
y
West Central
Virginia's Eight Regions
Arlington
Falls Church
Loudoun
61 out of 133 counties
saw population
DECLINE
FIGURE 2. Virginia’s Uneven Population Growth
DATA SOURCE: University of Virginia, Weldon Cooper Center for Public Service, Demographic Research Group, “Virginia’s
Demographic Regions,” accessed November 16, 2018, https://demographics.coopercenter.org/virginia-
regions.
7
Population growth, however, has been quite uneven
across the Commonwealth. It has been vigorous in the
Northern Virginia and Hampton Roads regions — where the
population counts of Falls Church and Arlington counties
all grew by over 15 percent between 2010 and 2017 — and
Loudoun County, which increased its population by 26.8
percent.
10
In contrast, most Virginia counties experienced
population changes of a much smaller magnitude, and
many (61 counties out of 133) saw population declines.
Special Education and ELL Students
The demand for teachers is also affected by the
characteristics of students. Of particular interest are the
changing numbers of special education, English Language
Learner (ELL), and economically disadvantaged students.
These pupils may require supplemental educational
resources and, in the case of special education and ELL
students, also require specially trained instructors.
By comparison to the moderately strong upward trend in total student enrollment
increases in Virginia, the number of students who are economically disadvantaged
or English Language Learners have increased astronomically. As Figure 3 shows,
economically disadvantaged students increased in enrollment from 350,095 to 529,684
between 2007 and 2018 — or from 28.7 to 40.0 percent of the total student population.
The number of ELL students increased from 86,390 to 159,126 — or from 7.1 percent to
12.3 percent of the total student population. This rapid growth in student populations
requiring specialized instruction or greater resources may place additional demands
on the teacher workforce in the state.
For the last thirteen years, the Virginia Department of Education has identified special
education as the subject area with the most critical shortage for teachers.
11
However,
as Figure 3 indicates, the number of students with disabilities decreased over the
period 2007 to 2015 and only rose modestly after 2015. The shortage of special
education teachers becomes even more puzzling as we note below (in Table 1) that
there has been an increase in recent years in the number of graduates from Virginia
teacher education programs with preparation in special education. We return to this
puzzle later in this report.
By comparison to the
moderately strong upward
trend in total student
enrollment increases
in Virginia, the number
of students who are
economically disadvantaged
or English Language
Learners have increased
astronomically.
8
Teacher Turnover and Attrition
Heightened rates of teacher turnover or attrition can also boost demand for new
teachers and generate shortages. A 2017 report by Virginia’s Advisory Committee
on Teacher Shortages found that average teacher turnover among the state’s public
schools was 10.2 percent between the 2015-16 and 2016-17 school years — a rate
significantly higher than the national average of 8 percent.
12
The gap between Virginia and US turnover rates suggests the possibility of state-
specific factors pushing up attrition. If that is the case, one contributing factor may
be Virginia’s currently older teaching workforce. The 2011-12 Schools and Staffing
Survey determined the median age of Virginia’s teachers as 43.2 years, compared to
41.0 years in the US.
13
Figure 4, based on the survey data, shows that the percentage
of teachers over fifty years of age is relatively high in Virginia, suggesting that a larger
proportion of Virginia teachers are nearing retirement. Nonetheless, the magnitude of
the “graying” of the workforce as part of overall attrition is unclear. Retirement is one
of the three most frequently cited reasons for teacher attrition, comprising about 31
percent, but it is no greater than changing careers (31 percent) and less common than
“personal or life” reasons (43 percent).
14
School staffing problems, which, as we note
below, may be concentrated in certain parts of the state, are much more likely to be
related to turnover than to teacher retirements.
15
FIGURE 3. Percent Change in Enrollment since 2007 for Student Population Subgroups
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019
Percent Change in Total Enrollment of Group
Academic Year
All Students Disadvantaged Students with Disabilities English Language Learner
DATA SOURCE: Virginia Department of Education (VDOE), “Fall Membership Reports, 2007-2018” and “VDOE Special
Education Child Count Reports 2007-2018.”
9
Supply
Some evidence suggests that Virginia has an ample supply of teachers, at least in
comparison to other states. We consider three factors related to the supply of Pre-K-12
teachers in Virginia public schools: (1) the number of full-time teachers; (2) teacher
preparation program graduates; and (3) out-of-state teachers.
Number of Teachers
The number of teachers has grown statewide in recent years. Figure 5 shows that
while the number of teachers stalled between 2008 and 2015, the aggregate workforce
grew before the recession as well as after 2015. Following the economic recession,
Virginia lawmakers changed the state’s Standard of Quality (SOQ) state aid formula in
a way that made it difficult for local districts to maintain prerecession-level education
funding.
16
Despite the seven-year pause in growth, however, the statewide increase
in the number of teachers since 2002 has been greater than the increase in student
enrollment.
FIGURE 4. Percent of Teacher Workforce by Age Group, Virginia Compared to US
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0
Less than
30 years
30–49 years
50–54 years
55 years or more
Percent of Teachers
Virginia United States
DATA SOURCE: Public School Teacher File, 2012, from the Schools and Staffing Survey, NCES.
10
One result of the growth in the total number of teachers in Virginia is a decline in the
average student-teacher ratio in the state. As Figure 6 shows, the student-teacher
ratio has varied little in recent years — from a high of 12.6 in 2002 to just over 11.8
in 2008. Except for the postrecession increases between 2008 and 2015, the overall
trend has been a reduction, down to just over 12.0 in 2016.
One noteworthy countervailing trend over this time period
has been the large reduction in the number of support
positions in schools. Since the budgetary cuts associated
with the economic recession (between the 2008-09
and 2016-17 school years), the state has lost a total of
2,524 support staff in schools.
17
This loss stems primarily
from a change in the Virginia Standards of Quality (SOQ)
funding formula in 2009, which capped the number
of state-funded support positions to one for each 4.03
instructional positions (where instructional positions
included guidance counselors and librarians, as described in Figure 6).
18
Support
positions are defined broadly to include positions in areas such as technology; pupil
transportation; operation and maintenance; professional development; attendance and
health; administration; and superintendent, school board, and school nurse positions.
19
One noteworthy
countervailing trend over
this time period has been
the large reduction in the
number of support positions
in schools.
Year
FIGURE 5. Growth in Teacher Counts and Student Enrollment from 2002 to 2016
DATA SOURCE: “Superintendent’s Annual Reports: 2002-17,” Virginia Department of Education (VDOE), Tables 2 and 17.
NOTE: For the values in this figure, the number of teachers is calculated as the sum of elementary teachers, secondary
teachers, guidance counselors, and librarians in order to be consistent across the entire time period.
2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
0 5 10 15
Percent Change Since 2002
Year
Teachers
Students
11
Teacher Preparation Pipeline
Another indicator of the supply of teachers to schools
in Virginia is the number of graduates from the state’s
teacher education programs. The state has forty
providers, including thirty-six traditional programs
in higher education institutions, plus four alternative
programs.
20
Unlike forty-five other states, which have
experienced declines in the number of graduates from
teacher education programs, Virginia has seen growth
between 2009 and 2016 (Figure 7). The growth has not
been consistent; most of the increase occurred before
2013, and a significant decline occurred between the
2015 and 2016 school years. Also, enrollment in teacher
preparation programs in Virginia declined over the same
period, perhaps auguring future declines in graduates.
Nonetheless, Virginia’s teacher education programs have, for the most part, provided
a steady supply of potential teachers — a distinctive strength in comparison to other
states in recent years.
Unlike forty-five other states,
which have experienced
declines in the number of
graduates from teacher
education programs, Virginia
has seen growth between
2009 and 2016
FIGURE 6. Adjusted Pupil-Teacher Ratio from 2002 to 2016
DATA SOURCE: “Superintendent’s Annual Reports: 2002-17,” Virginia Department of Education (VDOE),
Tables 2 and 17.
NOTE: In this figure, the number of teachers underlying the ratio is calculated as the sum of elementary
teachers, secondary teachers, guidance counselors, and librarians to be consistent across the
entire time period. This pupil-to-teacher ratio is therefore lower in each year than it would be if
guidance counselors and librarians were not included.
2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Year
10 11 12 13 14
Pupil-to-Teacher Ratio
12
Although growth in the number of graduates has been widespread among different
subject area specializations, there are some large differences among specialization
areas. As Table 1 demonstrates, the greatest increases in the subject areas of
graduates between 2011 and 2015 occurred in the areas of special education, social
studies/history/social science, physical education/health, and secondary education.
The number of graduates prepared to teach ELL, Bilingual, and Multilingual subjects,
as well as middle school or junior high grades, also grew vigorously during this period.
In contrast, graduates prepared to teach science, elementary education, music and the
arts, and career and technical education increased only slightly between 2011 and
2015, and the number ready to teach foreign languages, mathematics, and English saw
declines.
Out-of-State Teachers
Virginia’s supply of teachers may benefit from the fact that the Commonwealth offers
an open system for teachers and graduates of teacher education programs from other
states. An individual coming into Virginia from any state may qualify for a Virginia
teaching license with comparable endorsement areas if the individual has completed
a teacher preparation program through a regionally accredited four-year college
or university approved by the sending state. Based on data collected by the U.S.
Department of Education, 60 percent of persons receiving an initial teaching credential
in Virginia in 2012-13 were prepared by an out-of-state teacher education program.
21
FIGURE 7. Trends in the Numbers of Graduates and Enrollment in Teacher Preparation
Programs in Viriginia, 2008 to 2016
-
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
16,000
-
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
4,000
4,500
2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16
Enrollment
Graduates
Graduates Enrollment
DATA SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, Title II Reports, https://title2.ed.gov/Public/Home.aspx.
Graduates
Enrollment
Graduates
Enrollment
4,500
4,000
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
16,000
14,000
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16
13
Also, licensure “by reciprocity” is provided for individuals who have obtained a valid
out-of-state license. Individuals who hold a valid out-of-state licenses, and who have
completed a minimum of three years of full-time, successful teaching experience in
a state other than Virginia, are exempted from the professional teacher’s assessment
requirements.
22
TABLE 1. Subject of Graduates of Teacher Education Programs in Virginia, 2011-15
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
%
Change
Elementary Education 1,474 1,481 1,445 1,572 1,505 2.1%
Special Education 465 537 621 587 669 43.9%
English, Language Arts, Reading, Speech 448 370 444 412 412 -8.0%
Other 367 188 159 380 477 30.0%
Social Studies, Social Sciences, History 305 378 477 495 480 57.4%
Music, Art, Drama, Dance 244 229 237 230 257 5.3%
Physical Education, Coaching, Health 222 292 280 288 345 55.4%
Mathematics 179 200 216 213 166 -7.3%
Junior High, Middle School Education 163 153 147 136 215 31.9%
Secondary Education 155 352 450 330 437 181.9%
Science 135 147 174 179 160 18.5%
ESL, Bilingual, Multilingual 105 64 127 111 137 30.5%
Foreign Languages 91 88 96 107 79 -13.2%
Technical, Occupational, Business 91 75 61 90 97 6.6%
Early Childhood Education 75 91 179 84 199 165.3%
General 59 0 17 0 201 240.7%
Total 4,578 4,645 5,130 5,214 5,836 27.5%
DATA SOURCE: “Title II Teacher Preparation Reports, 2012-16, U.S. Department of Education.
NOTE: Each cell refers to the number of graduates prepared in each of the listed subjects. However, a graduate may be
prepared to teach in more than one subject. Therefore, the total row may be larger than the total number of teacher
graduates. The “other” category is reported when teacher preparation program subject areas do not fit neatly into any
other subject categories. Some frequently reported “other” programs include: library, media, marketing, journalism,
and gifted education.
14
Diversity of Teachers
Virginia, like most other states (including the Rockefeller Institute’s analysis in South
Dakota and New York), faces the challenge of lacking a teacher workforce that fully
represents the racial diversity of students enrolled in public schools. In fact, as of
the 2015-16 school year, only 50.5 percent of students are non-Hispanic white; 22.9
percent are non-Hispanic black; 14.4 percent are of Hispanic origin; and the remaining
12.2 percent are of other race or multiple races.
23
Although Virginia does not provide publicly available data on the racial, ethnic, or
gender composition of its teachers, data from federal Title II reports on the enrollment
in teacher preparation programs offers a clue to such information. The breakdown is
presented in Figure 8. Hispanic enrollees increased from 13.3 percent of all enrollees in
2012 to 16.4 percent in 2016; black students increased their share in teacher preparation
programs from 2.9 to 4.1 percent; and white, non-Hispanic students declined over this
four-year period from 79.4 percent of all enrollees to 73.2 percent. These are hardly
large changes, though they do show that teacher preparation programs in Virginia
are serving a somewhat more diverse population — a change that, if sustained, may
eventually lead to a more diverse teacher workforce in the state.
FIGURE 8. Racial Diversity of Teacher Preparation Program Enrolled Students in 2012 and 2016
2012
2016
DATA SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, Title II Reports, https://title2.ed.gov/Public/DataTools/Tables.aspx.
White Enrollment
Hispanic Enrollment
Other Race/Ethnicity Enrollment
Black Enrollment
Asian Enrollment
15
Intrastate Differences: Poverty and Rural
Communities
Despite Virginia’s growth in its statewide teacher
workforce and the increase in graduates from the state’s
teacher education programs, there are signs of teacher
shortages in parts of the state. Challenges in balancing
teacher demand and supply may be revealed in several
ways: by vacancies in teaching positions, rates of
teacher turnover, indicators of teacher quality or fit with
their positions, and student-teacher ratios. All of these
measures show considerable variation across different
communities.
One indicator of shortage is the percentage of schools
with unfilled teaching positions. Vacancies are relatively
uncommon; only 1.1 percent of positions were unfilled
one month into the 2016-17 school year in Virginia. But a
report by the Virginia Department of Education revealed enormous differences across
divisions, with the highest rates of unfilled positions found among divisions with high
concentrations of poverty.
24
The most recent federal survey data, conducted for the
2011-12 school year, measured vacancies in another way — the percentage of schools
with any vacancies — and also found large local differences. The highest proportion
of schools with vacancies occurred among rural schools: 85.6 percent of Virginia’s
rural schools reported vacancies, compared to 72.4 in urban schools and 64.7 percent
in suburban areas.
Teacher turnover rates, which can affect demand, also
varied enormously across localities. Ten of Virginia’s
divisions had turnover rates between 23.7 and 31.1 percent,
between two and three times the average statewide rate
of 10.2 percent in 2016-17.
25
Like vacancies, the high
rates were typically found in rural divisions, largely in
the Southside, Central, and Eastern regions of the state.
However, turnover was also high in Falls Church City, a
wealthy and fast-growing division in the Northern region.
An imbalance between the supply and demand for
teachers may also be revealed by indicators of teacher
quality. One such indicator is whether a teacher has a provisional license. Provisional
licenses generally indicate less experienced and educationally qualified teachers.
26
A
high rate of teachers with provisional licenses may indicate challenges for a school or
district in recruiting and retaining strong teachers. Figure 9 shows differences in the
percentage of teachers with provisional licenses in the 2015-16 school year, averaged
across divisions, by characteristics of the communities served. The divisions are
classified into nine categories, distinguished by student poverty rates and community
type (urban, rural, and suburban/town).
27
The highest proportion of
schools with vacancies
occurred among rural
schools: 85.6 percent of
Virginia’s rural schools
reported vacancies,
compared to 72.4 in urban
schools and 64.7 percent in
suburban areas.
Ten of Virginia’s divisions
had turnover rates between
23.7 and 31.1 percent,
between two and three
times the average statewide
rate of 10.2 percent in
2016-17.
16
The highest average percentages of teachers without
full licenses are found among high-poverty divisions
in Virginia’s rural and suburban/town areas; nearly 7
percent of teachers, on average, had provisional licenses.
Teachers with provisional licenses were also relatively
common among divisions with medium-poverty rates,
while low-poverty divisions had the fewest teachers with
such licenses. Poverty rates among students thus showed
the strongest and most consistent association with high
rates of teachers with provisional licenses.
Another signal of difficulties in hiring and retaining strong
teachers is the percentage of core academic courses
taught by teachers who are not “highly qualified.” Highly qualified teachers must have
a bachelor’s degree and full state certification or licensure, and they must demonstrate
that they know each subject they teach.
28
Figure 10 shows the percent of core academic
classes (English, math, science, and social studies) taught by teachers who were not
highly qualified, compared again across districts in different communities and with
different student poverty rates.
Figure 10 shows a pattern similar to that displayed in Figure 9. Again, divisions
with higher rates of lower-income students had relatively high percentages of core
academic courses taught by teachers who were not “highly qualified.” Divisions with
The highest average
percentages of teachers
without full licenses
are found among high-
poverty divisions in
Virginia’s rural and
suburban/town areas ...
FIGURE 9. Percent of Teachers with Provisional Licenses by Division Type, 2015-16
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
8.00
Rural Suburb/Town Urban
Average Percent of Teachers with Provisional
Licenses (%)
Low Poverty Medium Poverty High Poverty
DATA SOURCE: Virginia Department of Education (VDOE), “School Quality Profile data, 2015-16”;
National Center of Education Statistics (NCES) “2016 Common Core of Data (CCD)
district survey.”
17
the lowest poverty rates — whether in rural, suburban, or urban areas — all had low
percentages of courses taught by less qualified teachers, typically less than 1 percent.
The one exception to the pattern is found among the urban divisions. Medium-poverty
divisions showed higher rates of courses taught by less qualified teachers than high-
poverty divisions, but both indicated workforce difficulties greater than low-poverty
divisions.
Figure 11 shows one more possible indicator of teacher quality across different
communities — the average percentage of teachers with masters or doctoral degrees.
Although the research does not consistently indicate that teachers that have masters
or doctoral degrees are more likely to be effective in terms of student learning, high
rates of advanced degrees may indicate that a district or school can select teachers
from a stronger pool of candidates. The averages across districts serving different
types of communities in Figure 11 show that, in Virginia, the differences across types
of divisions are, on average, small. Nonetheless, the low-poverty divisions consistently
report slightly higher percentages of teachers with advanced degrees, while there are
no consistent differences across rural, suburban, and urban divisions.
FIGURE 10. Percent of Core Academic Classes Taught by Teachers Not Highly Qualified by
Division Type, 2015-16
-
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
Rural Suburb/Town Urban
Average Percent of Core Academic Classes
Taught by Teachers Not Highly Qualified
Low Poverty Medium Poverty High Poverty
DATA SOURCE: Virginia Department of Education (VDOE), “School Quality Profile data, 2015-2016”;
National Center of Education Statistics (NCES), “2016 Common Core of Data (CCD)
district survey.”
18
In one respect, poverty and ruralness are not negatively associated with a measure of
the local-level adequacy of the teacher workforce. Figure 12 shows the relationships
between the types of communities that districts serve and the average student-
teacher ratios for grades K-7. Urban divisions have somewhat higher student-teacher
ratios, as do low-poverty divisions in rural, suburban, and urban areas. However,
the differences are not great, generally about one student per teacher or less. The
weaknesses in high-poverty divisions in recruiting teachers are thus found not in the
numbers of teachers on staff, but rather in their qualifications.
The differences across these categories of divisions are also associated with other
student characteristics, including race and ethnicity. As Table 2 shows, rural divisions
have the highest proportions of white and the fewest Hispanic students. Urban divisions
generally have greater percentages of black and Hispanic students, while suburban/
town divisions have a racial and ethnic composition that lies between urban and rural
areas. Student poverty rates in Virginia are not consistently correlated with race or
ethnicity. In urban areas, greater percentages of black and Hispanic students are
found in the low-poverty divisions, while the opposite pattern for minority students is
evident in rural areas. The proportion of students who are English Language Learners
tends to follow the distribution of Hispanic students, while the percentage of students
with Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) is somewhat lower in low-poverty districts.
FIGURE 11. Average Percent of Teachers with Masters or Doctoral Degrees by Division Type,
2015-16
-
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
70.00
Rural Suburb/Town Urban
Average Percent of teachers with either advanced
degrees (masters or doctoral) (%)
Low Poverty Medium Poverty High Poverty
DATA SOURCE: Virginia Department of Education (VDOE), “School Quality Profile data, 2015-2016”;
National Center of Education Statistics (NCES), “2016 Common Core of Data (CCD)
district survey.”
19
Table 2 also shows the distribution of students across these nine categories and recent
changes in enrollment. These patterns have implications for where teachers may be
most needed in Virginia. It is clear that rural enrollment is declining, while most of
the current students (as well as recent enrollment growth) are found in suburban/
FIGURE 12. Average Student-to-Teacher Ratio (Grade K-7) by Division Type
8.00
9.00
10.00
11.00
12.00
13.00
14.00
Rural Suburb/Town Urban
Average Student-teacher ratio (K-7) (%)
Low Poverty Medium Poverty High Poverty
DATA SOURCE: Virginia Department of Education (VDOE), “School Quality Profile data, 2015-2016”;
National Center of Education Statistics (NCES), “2016 Common Core of Data (CCD)
district survey.”
TABLE 2. Average Student Characteristics by Division Type
Rural Suburban/Town Urban
Student Characteristic
Low
Poverty
Medium
Poverty
High
Poverty
Low
Poverty
Medium
Poverty
High
Poverty
Low
Poverty
Medium
Poverty
High
Poverty
% White 76.5 74.2 72.5 64.8 62.0 72.0 42.5 47.7 64.6
% Black 17.8 20.4 23.1 27.5 19.4 19.3 44.1 33.8 25.4
% Hispanic 5.7 5.4 4.4 7.6 18.6 8.7 13.4 18.5 10.0
% ELL 2.3 2.2 1.6 3.9 9.5 4.2 8.9 13.8 4.8
% With IEP 13.3 13.4 13.9 12.4 14.1 13.1 13.8 13.2 12.3
Enrollment, thousands (2015) 70.1 96.8 93.7 359.8 145.5 230.3 91.8 150.3 45.2
% Change in enrollment, 2010-15 -2.8 -2.1 -2.3 3.6 6.9 5.8 2.1 1.4 0.9
DATA SOURCE: National Center of Education Statistics (NCES), “2016 Common Core of Data (CCD) district-level survey data.”
20
town divisions. In particular, suburban/town school
divisions with medium- and high-poverty rates have seen
the largest increases in K-12 enrollment. Assuming these
trends continue, and holding everything else constant, it
is possible that a disproportionate number of teachers
will be needed in economically struggling suburban/town
regions within the state.
In sum, divisions with greater poverty rates, indicated by
the proportion of students eligible for free lunch within a
division, are more likely to have teachers with provisional
licenses, are more likely to have core academic classes
taught by teachers not highly qualified for those subjects,
and are somewhat less likely to have teachers with
masters or doctoral degrees. The student-teacher ratios
in high-poverty divisions tend to be lower, though there
is not much variation among divisions on this measure
within Virginia. Unlike the patterns in many other states,
these differences are not clearly associated with the
distribution of black and Hispanic students. In Virginia,
gaps in teacher quality thus seem most consistently
associated with economic disadvantage rather than race
or ethnicity.
Subject Area Differences
In addition to differences across localities in teacher demand and supply patterns,
differences also exist in the labor market for teachers in their areas of specialization.
Based on school data from 2015, the Virginia Department of Education identified
the top ten critical shortage teaching endorsement areas in the state.
29
These areas
were identified based on: (a) total number of teaching positions that were unfilled; (b)
teaching positions that were filled by provisionally licensed teachers; and (c) teaching
positions that were filled by teachers who are licensed, but who are teaching in
academic subject areas other than their area of preparation.
The ten top subject areas of teacher shortage in 2015, ranked from the most to the less
severe areas, were:
1. Special education;
2. Childhood and elementary education, Pre-K-6;
3. Middle education, grades 6-8;
4. Career and technical education;
5. Mathematics, grades 6-12 (including Algebra 1);
6. School counselor, Pre-K-12;
7. English (secondary);
Divisions with greater
poverty rates, indicated by
the proportion of students
eligible for free lunch within
a division, are more likely
to have teachers with
provisional licenses, are
more likely to have core
academic classes taught by
teachers not highly qualified
for those subjects, and are
somewhat less likely to have
teachers with masters or
doctoral degrees.
21
8. Foreign languages, Pre-K-12;
9. Health and physical education, Pre-K-12
10. History and social science (secondary)
30
When these rankings are compared to the teacher preparation pipeline (Table 1) and
changes in student characteristics (Figure 3), some puzzles arise. One involves
special education. There has been a large increase in the number of graduates from
teacher preparation programs with endorsements in special education; the total
number of special educators in Virginia has remained relatively steady since 2011; and
the percentage of “qualified” special educators has increased. At the same time, there
has been little growth in the number of students with disabilities. Why then has it been
so difficult to fill special education positions?
Although we do not have the data to fully explain these discrepancies, one hypothesis
is that the shortage is due to a lack of teachers with specializations appropriate to the
specific needs of disabled students. For example, at the national level, the student-
teacher ratio of special education teachers has swelled, while the number of students
with learning disabilities, one of the milder forms of disability, has declined.
31
It is
possible that special education teachers are now expected to serve not only more
students but also those with comparatively severe disabilities, such as autism spectrum
disorder. Whether the graduates with some special education preparation are in fact
ready to teach a changing profile of students is a critical question, perhaps partly
answered by the fact that fully one-third of the teachers with provisional licenses in
Virginia are teaching special education.
32
Most of the other comparisons between trends in teacher preparation programs and
the state’s estimates of shortages by subject area are less puzzling. Elementary
education teachers are in short supply according to the state’s measures, and it is true
that graduates with such certifications have barely increased in recent years (Figure
7). Also, mathematics positions are not easy to fill — findings consistent with the 7.3
percent decline in graduates with that specialization between 2011 and 2015. Some
comparisons, however, are not readily reconciled. Middle education, grades 6 to 8, is
an area where shortages exist, yet graduates from teacher education programs with
that preparation have grown by nearly a third between 2011 and 2015. Of course, it can
be a slow process for yearly increases in teacher preparation program graduates to
translate into increases in teacher supply in a particular subject.
22
Combinations of Local and Subject Area Shortages
Evidence of other local-level differences in the teacher labor market and how they may
correlate with specific subject areas comes from Virginia Department of Education’s
2015 Plan to Ensure Excellent Educators for All Students, which identified five major
teacher equity gaps of concern:
33
1. School divisions with a large proportion of minority students have more first-
year teachers than low-minority school divisions.
2. School divisions with a large proportion of minority students have a greater
proportion of out-of-field mathematics teachers than low-minority school
divisions.
3. School divisions with a large proportion of low-income students have a greater
proportion of out-of-field foreign language teachers than high-income school
divisions.
4. School divisions with a large proportion of low-income students have a greater
proportion of out-of-field ELL teachers than high-income school divisions.
5. School divisions with a large proportion of low-income or minority students
have a greater proportion of out-of-field special education teachers than low-
minority, high-income school divisions.
The 2015 report suggested several possible root causes of these teacher equity
gaps: teacher preparation programs, recruitment challenges, working conditions, and
professional development.
Salaries
Teacher salaries may also contribute to teacher shortages and teacher equity gaps.
In general, Virginia’s teacher salaries are neither high nor growing, a challenge for a
state that seeks to recruit and retain teachers for a growing population of students
across a very diverse set of communities. Some facts:
• Twenty-four out of ninety-four counties experienced declines in teacher
salary, and five out of thirty-six cities experienced teacher salary declines
between 2015 and 2017.
34
• Virginia is currently ranked thirtieth out of fifty states in average teacher
salary ($50,620, compared to the national average of $57,420).
• In real dollar terms, teachers in Virginia have had their pay cut by 9 percent
since 2009 and 10 percent since 2003 (compared to a 3 percent decline
nationally).
35
• Virginia is a Right to Work state, and teachers are prohibited from collective
bargaining.
• Virginia only earned 63 percent of what similarly educated professionals
earned in nonteaching occupations.
36
23
• Compared to the six states that border Virginia, its statewide average salary
is middling: higher than the average salaries in West Virginia, Tennessee,
and North Carolina; similar to Kentucky’s; and substantially lower than those
offered in Maryland and the District of Columbia.
37
Teacher salaries are not equally distributed across divisions, though the pattern is
complex. As Figure 13 demonstrates, the average starting salaries of Virginia’s teachers
are higher in low-poverty divisions, at least in rural and suburban/town areas. In
urban areas, poverty rates of divisions are not associated with significant differences
in student poverty rates. Virginia schools receive 51 percent of their funding from local
revenues, a high percentage that limit the state’s ability to ensure equitable funding
between poor and wealthy divisions; it appears that equity is particularly challenging
outside Virginia’s cities.
38
FIGURE 13. Average Starting Salary for Teacher with Bachelor’s Degree by Division Type,
2015-16
35,000.00
36,000.00
37,000.00
38,000.00
39,000.00
40,000.00
41,000.00
42,000.00
43,000.00
Rural Suburb/Town Urban
Average Percent of Core Academic Classes
Taught by Teachers Not Highly Qualified
Low Poverty Medium Poverty High Poverty
DATA SOURCE: Virginia Department of Education (VDOE), “2015-2016 Teacher Salary Report”; National
Center of Education Statistics (NCES), “2016 Common Core of Data (CCD) district
survey.”
24
Policies/Responses to Teacher Shortages
Virginia has been working to address teacher shortage problems for nearly two
decades. In 2000, the state legislature asked the Virginia Board of Education to create
a Career Switcher program to help end the teacher shortage.
39
In this program, career
switchers can earn a one-year provisional license after completing coursework while
working full-time in their other career, and then receive ongoing support during their
first year of teaching.
The 2011-12 Schools and Staffing Survey by NCES reported that Virginia used a variety
of recruitment incentives for teachers.
40
The state was notable in comparison to other
states in its use of free training for district staff to prepare them to teach in current
or anticipated shortages, and for its pay incentives to recruit or retain teachers to
teach in less desirable locations and teach in fields where teacher shortages exist.
For example:
• 4.9 percent of Virginia districts used relocation assistance to recruit new
teachers (compared to 2.5 percent in the US).
• 38.2 percent of the state’s districts offered free training for district staff to
prepare them to teach in current or anticipated shortages (compared 27.1
percent in the US).
• 13.0 percent of districts used pay incentives to recruit or retain teachers to
teach in a less desirable location (compared to 5.6 percent in the US).
• 38.1 percent of districts relied on pay incentives to recruit or retain teachers to
teach in fields of shortage (compared to 13.5 percent in the US).
In addition, Virginia has allowed teachers who have retired to return to teaching
full-time while earning their retirement benefits if the teacher teaches in a critical
shortage area.
41
25
While these efforts may help address immediate shortage issues, several programs
in Virginia are designed to support the teacher pipeline. To incentivize students to
enter the teaching workforce, or to seek endorsement in a critical need area, the state
offers the Virginia Teaching Scholarship Loan Program (VTSLP), which provides a
scholarship of up to $10,000 for education students at a public or private school who
are seeking endorsement in a critical shortage area or career and technical education.
The scholarship is also available to students seeking endorsement in any subject
but qualify as members of underrepresented minorities, including males seeking
endorsement in elementary or middle subjects.
42
The appropriation for this award in
2017-18 was $708,000.
43
In December 2017, Governor Terry McAuliffe introduced his
proposal to amend the VTSLP to better target critical shortage areas by increasing the
maximum award to $20,000 if the graduates teach for two years in a top five critical
shortage area, or in a district where more than half of the students participate in a free
and reduced price lunch program.
44
Virginia also operates a Virginia Teachers for Tomorrow program (VTfT), which offers
high school students an introduction to teaching as a career, where they earn college
credit and have an internship as a teacher.
45
VTfT is taken as a high school course for
credit; an estimated 2,000 students are currently enrolled in the program in fifty-two
different districts.
46
These “Grow Your Own” programs have been recognized in other
states.
Former Governor Terry McAuliffe proposed an additional $500 to be added to the
Tuition Assistance Grant (TAG) to seniors pursuing degrees in education.
47
He also
proposed $50,000 a year to help cover the cost of teaching exams and exam materials
for underrepresented students in the teaching profession in order to increase teacher
diversity across the state.
48
Finally, in December 2017, Governor McAuliffe signed Executive Order 14, which
authorized Virginia’s public colleges to offer an undergraduate program with a major
in education.
49
Currently in Virginia, teachers must complete a five-year program.
According to information provided by the Governor’s Office, this emergency regulation
will help expedite students’ entry into the workforce.
50
Still, many policy challenges remain. In addition to the local-level inequities and
subject area shortages described in this report, a 2017 report from the Virginia Board
of Education indicated that:
51
• Throughout the recession, the Standards of Quality (SOQ) formula underwent
changes that resulted in a reduction of support for public schools — around
$800 million per year.
• Nearly 40 percent of Virginia’s public school students are free or reduced
price lunch eligible, and the number is growing every year.
52
• According to survey results, Virginia has some of the lowest reports of
classroom autonomy, the highest percent of teachers saying they plan to
leave teaching immediately or when a better job comes along, and the lowest
percent of teachers who plan to remain in teaching as long as they are able to
do so, or until they are eligible for retirement benefits.
53
26
Virginia’s policymakers have taken several steps to address problems of teacher
recruitment, including well-targeted preservice efforts to address underserved
localities and endorsements as well as to recruit a more diverse teacher workforce.
Less emphasis to date has been placed on the in-service experience of teachers,
on retaining highly qualified teachers, for example, through changes in salaries and
professional autonomy sufficient to maintain a strong teacher workforce across all
divisions. Whether this focus on recruitment suffices by itself to alleviate the problems
of equity and subject area shortages is a question worth further investigation.
Conclusion
Virginia is a growing state, with increasing student enrollment. The number of teachers
in the state, though fluctuating, has grown even faster than enrollment; student-
teacher ratios have changed little over time; and the pipeline for teacher candidates
has been one of the strongest in the nation, a pipeline augmented by the relative ease
with which teachers from other states can qualify for Virginia positions.
There are, nonetheless, indications of imbalances between demand and supply.
Vacancies in teaching positions and teacher turnover are high in Virginia, compared to
other states. Also, even though there has been little overall growth in special education
pupils in the state, and despite the fact that special-education-prepared graduates
have increased in numbers in recent years, Virginia has indicated repeatedly that
schools have struggled to hire qualified special education teachers.
Similar to our findings in New York and South Dakota, our analyses found significant
gaps between school districts serving different communities and students with
different backgrounds. High-poverty districts in Virginia were less likely to have
teachers with full (rather than provisional) certification, they were less likely to have
“highly qualified” teachers responsible for core academic subjects, and they were
somewhat less likely to have teachers with advanced degrees. Although we do not
analyze the reasons behind these differences, we note that starting salaries for
teachers in low-poverty divisions are higher than in divisions with higher rates of
student poverty, at least within rural and suburban/town communities.
These equity gaps have been recognized by Virginia’s state government, and the state
has been addressing teacher recruitment issues in several ways, including scholarships
and other financial assistance for students in teacher education programs, and special
incentives to students preparing to teach in specialized areas with shortages or to
students who are members of underrepresented minorities in the teaching profession.
Although the range of Virginia’s efforts to address both overall and specific teacher
shortages is impressive, whether these and other policies and initiatives are making
a dent in the significant gaps in the teacher workforce between the state’s high- and
low-poverty areas, however, is a question still to be answered.
27
ENDNOTES
28
1 Leib Sutcher, Linda Darling-Hammond, and Desiree Carver-Thomas, A Coming Crisis in Teaching?
Teacher Supply, Demand, and Shortages in the U.S. (Palo Alto: Learning Policy Institute, September
2016), https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/sites/default/files/product-files/A_Coming_Crisis_
in_Teaching_REPORT.pdf; Tawnell D. Hobbs, “In More High School Classes, the Teacher Is on
a Screen,” Wall Street Journal, October 25, 2018, https://www.wsj.com/articles/in-more-high-
school-classes-the-teacher-is-on-a-screen-1540459802.
2 Digest of Education Statistics (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for
Education Statistics, 2017 Tables and Figures), Table 203.20, https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/
d17/tables/dt17_203.20.asp; “2017 Title II Reports, National Teacher Education Data,” Academic
Year 2015-16 Data, accessed November 14, 2018, https://title2.ed.gov/Public/Home.aspx.
3 Donald Boyd et al., “The Draw of Home: How Teachers’ Preferences for Proximity Disadvantage
Urban Schools,” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 24, 1 (2005): 113-32.
4 James Cowan et al., “Missing Elements in the Discussion of Teacher Shortages,” Educational
Researcher 45, 8 (2016): 460-2.
5 Thomas Gais et al., The State of the New York Teacher Workforce (Albany: Rockefeller Institute of
Government, March 2018), https://rockinst.org/issue-area/state-new-york-teacher-workforce/;
Thomas Gais et al., Phase One Analysis of the Teacher Workforce in South Dakota (Albany:
Rockefeller Institute of Government, October 2017), https://rockinst.org/issue-area/phase-one-
analysis-teacher-workforce-south-dakota/.
6 This student-to-teacher ratio includes guidance counselors and librarians.
7 Digest of Education Statistics (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for
Education Statistics, 2017 Tables and Figures), Table 203.20, https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/
d17/tables/dt17_203.20.asp.
8 “Virginia Cohort Reports,” Virginia Department of Education (VDOE), 2018, http://www.doe.
virginia.gov/statistics_reports/graduation_completion/cohort_reports/index.shtml.
9 Digest of Education Statistics, Table 203.20.
10 “Intercensal Estimates for Virginia, Counties, and Cities: 2010-2017,” University of Virginia Weldon
Cooper Center for Public Service, Demographics Research Group, accessed November 14, 2018,
https://demographics.coopercenter.org/virginia-population-estimates.
11 Virginia Department of Education (VDOE). (2007-2018). Critical Teaching Shortage Areas.
12 Preliminary Report from the Advisory Committee on Teacher Shortages (Richmond: Virginia
Department of Education (VDOE), October 2017), https://www.education.virginia.gov/media/
governorvirginiagov/secretary-of-education/pdf/final-acts-report.pdf.
13 Public School Teacher File, 2012, from the Schools and Staffing Survey, NCES.
14 Desiree Carver-Thomas and Linda Darling Hammond, Teacher Turnover: Why It Matters
and What We Can Do About It (Palo Alto: Learning Policy Institute, August 2017), https://
learningpolicyinstitute.org/sites/default/files/product-files/Teacher_Turnover_REPORT.pdf.
15 Richard Ingersoll and David Perda, “Is the Supply of Mathematics and Science Teachers
Sufficient?,” American Educational Research Journal 43, 3 (2010): 563-94.
16 Funding Virginia’s Schools in a Global Economy and a Digital World (Richmond: Senate Finance
Committee, November 18, 2011), http://sfc.virginia.gov/pdf/retreat/2011%20Retreat/Presentation_
Final%20PDF%20for%20Website/6.%20Public%20Ed%202011%20FINAL.pdf.
17 Superintendent’s Annual Reports, 2009-2017.
18 Kent C. Dickey, “Overview of Standards of Quality Funding Process,” Presentation to the Standing
Committee of the Standards of Quality, April 29, 2009, http://www.doe.virginia.gov/boe/quality/
soq_funding.ppt.
19 Ibid.
20 “2017 Title II Reports, National Teacher Education Data.”
21 Data to calculate percentage from Digest of Education Statistics, 2017 Tables and Figures, Table
209.05, https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d17/tables/dt17_209.05.asp?current=yes. The
29
percentage of persons receiving an initial teaching credential in a state, but prepared elsewhere in
the US, as a whole was only 21 percent.
22 “Conditions for Licensure for Out-of-State Candidates by Reciprocity,” Virginia Department of
Education (VDOE), accessed November 14, 2018, http://www.doe.virginia.gov/teaching/licensure/.
23 “Fall Membership Report 2015-16,” Virginia Department of Education (VDOE), accessed November
14, 2018, http://www.doe.virginia.gov/statistics_reports/enrollment/index.shtml.
24 Preliminary Report from the Advisory Committee on Teacher Shortages (Richmond: Virginia
Department of Education (VDOE), October 2017): 5, https://www.education.virginia.gov/media/
governorvirginiagov/secretary-of-education/pdf/final-acts-report.pdf.
25 Ibid.
26 Charles T. Clotfelter, Helen F. Ladd, and Jacob L. Vigdor, “Teacher credentials and student
achievement: Longitudinal analysis with student fixed effects,” Economics of Education Review 26,
6 (2007): 673-82.
27 The ULOCAL code of the National Center for Education Statistics was used to distinguish urban,
suburban, town, and rural divisions. Divisions were considered urban when ULOCAL was 11-13;
suburban/town, 21-33; and rural, 41-43. For descriptions of the codes, see https://nces.ed.gov/
programs/edge/docs/LOCALE_CLASSIFICATIONS.pdf. Poverty was based on percentage of
students eligible for free lunch in 2015. The divisions were ranked on this measure and divided
into three categories — low, medium, and high — based on the 33.3 and 66.7 percentiles.
28 “New No Child Left Behind Flexibility: Highly Qualified Teacher,” Fact Sheet, U.S. Department of
Education, NCLB / Proven Methods, March 2004, https://www2.ed.gov/nclb/methods/teachers/
hqtflexibility.html.
29 “Commonwealth of Virginia Critical Shortage Teaching Endorsement Areas for 2017-2018 School
Year,” Virginia Department of Education (VDOE), n.d., http://www.doe.virginia.gov/teaching/
workforce_data/shortage_areas/2017-2018.pdf.
30 With the exception of Social Studies/History, all of these subjects have consistently been listed
as areas of shortage in Virginia’s reports. For historical data on teacher shortages by state, see
“Teacher Shortage Areas,” U.S. Department of Education, accessed November 14, 2018, https://
tsa.ed.gov/#/reports.
31 Jim Dewey et al., “Explaining the Decline in Special Education Teacher Employment From 2005 to
2012,” Exceptional Children 83, 3 (2017): 315-29.
32 “Virginia State Quality Profile,” Virginia Department of Education (VDOE), 2017, accessed
November 14, 2018, http://schoolquality.virginia.gov/virginia-state-quality-profile.
33 Virginia’s Plan to Ensure Excellent Educators for All Students (Richmond: Virginia Department of
Education (VDOE), Revised August 2015), https://www2.ed.gov/programs/titleiparta/equitable/
vaequityplan83115.pdf.
34 “Teacher Salaries in Virginia,” Virginia Department of Education (VDOE), accessed November 14,
2018, http://www.doe.virginia.gov/teaching/workforce_data/index.shtml.
35 “Rankings of States and Estimates of School Statistics, 2005-2018,” National Education
Association (NEA), accessed November 14, 2018, http://www.nea.org/home/44479.htm.
36 Sutcher, Darling-Hammond, and Carver-Thomas, A Coming Crisis in Teaching?
37 “Rankings of States and Estimates of School Statistics, 2005-2018.”
38 “Superintendent’s Annual Report, 2016-17.”
39 “Career Switcher Program,” Virginia Department of Education (VDOE), accessed November 14,
2018, http://www.doe.virginia.gov/teaching/educator_preparation/career_switcher/index.shtml.
40 “Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) 2011-12, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES),
accessed November 14, 2018, https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/.
41 “Teaching While Retired,” Virginia Retirement System, last modified August 28, 2017, https://www.
varetire.org/retirees/working-after-retirement/teaching-while-retired.asp.
30
42 “Virginia Teaching Scholarship Loan Program (VTSLP),” Virginia Department of Education (VDOE),
accessed November 14, 2018, http://www.doe.virginia.gov/teaching/financial_support/virginia-
teaching-scholarship-loan-program/.
43 Virginia Teaching Scholarship Loan Program Application 2018-2019 (Richmond: Division of Teacher
Education and Licensure, Virginia Department of Education, n.d.), https://education.wm.edu/
documents/financialaid/vtslpapplication.pdf.
44 Office of the Governor, “Governor McAuliffe Signs Executive Directive 14 and Announces Budget
Actions to Address Virginia’s Teacher Shortage.” press release December 2017, http://www.doe.
virginia.gov/news/news_releases/2017/12_dec11_gov.shtml.
45 “Virginia Teachers for Tomorrow (VTFT),” Virginia Department of Education (VDOE), accessed
November 14, 2018, http://www.doe.virginia.gov/teaching/educator_preparation/teachers_for_
tomorrow/index.shtml.
46 Margaret Carmel, “Appomattox ‘growing its own’ future teachers with Teachers for Tomorrow
program,” News & Advance, December 17, 2017, http://www.newsadvance.com/news/local/
appomattox-growing-its-own-future-teachers-with-teachers-for-tomorrow/article_05ce8c49-
e10a-5903-b398-e494c5f4396f.html.
47 Office of the Governor, “Governor McAuliffe Signs Executive Directive 14.”
48 “Office of Education,” from Commonwealth of Virginia 2018-2020 Biennial Budget, Part B:
Executive Budget Document, Office of Education (Richmond: Virginia Department of Planning
and Budgeting, December 18, 2017): B-90-B-162, http://dpb.virginia.gov/budget/buddoc18/partb/
OfficeOfEducation.pdf.
49 Office of the Governor, “Governor McAuliffe Signs Executive Directive 14.”
50 Ibid.
51 Virginia Board of Education’s 2016 Annual Report on the Condition and Needs of Public Schools
in Virginia (Richmond: Virginia Board of Education, November 2016), http://www.doe.virginia.gov/
boe/reports/annual_reports/2016.pdf.
52 “School Quality Profile,” Virginia Department of Education (VDOE), 2016.
53 “Schools and Staffing Survey 2011-12,” National Center for Education Statistics.
31
ABOUT THE ROCKEFELLER INSTITUTE
Created in 1981, the Rockefeller Institute of Government is a public policy think tank
providing cutting-edge, evidence-based policy. Our mission is to improve the capac-
ities of communities, state and local governments, and the federal system to work
toward genuine solutions to the nation’s problems. Through rigorous, objective, and
accessible analysis and outreach, the Institute gives citizens and governments facts
and tools relevant to public decisions.
Learn more at www.rockinst.org.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Rockefeller Institute of Government is undertaking a comprehensive study
of teacher supply and demand in states across the nation. This study is the
third in a series of reports to come. Special thanks to the staffs of the Council
of Chief State School Officers and the College Football Playoff Foundation’s
Extra Yard for Teachers program for their continued help and assistance on the
nationwide project with the Rockefeller Institute of Government.
32
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